Plato
An ancient Greek philosopher, Plato embodies many foundational philosophical ideas. de Beauvoir mentions “the Platonic myth” that humans began as one being that was split into two, and that each half now seeks to rediscover its other half in the form of men and women uniting as couples. She cites this as an example of philosophers assuming that sexual division is inevitable. Actually, in nature, she points out that the division of two sexes is not always a biological fact, since hermaphrodites and single-cell species exist.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
A rationalist, this philosopher believes that sexuality is the impulse toward joining with another being in order to surpass one’s individual self by contributing, through reproduction, to a species. He also assumes that one sex had to be active and the other passive, with the female naturally taking the passive role. de Beauvoir points out that reproduction could be asexual, and that sexual activity is not necessarily part of human nature. She disputes Hegel’s assumption that sexual difference is natural and an essential part of human nature.
Sigmund Freud
Widely considered to be the father of psychoanalysis, Freud's ideas constitute some basic psychoanalytic principles. de Beauvoir points out that Freud assumes that men represent a neutral or superior position. For example, he believes libido is always male in essence and analyzes the ways in which sexuality is based around the penis. Freud believes that all people go through different phases, ranging from oral, to anal, to genital, and are differentiated by sex after this last phase. For women, there are two genital phases, and if this sexual development is not complete Freud believes a woman is likely to develop neuroses. de Beauvoir objects to Freud’s analysis on the basis that he assumes women are simply damaged versions of men; for example, he believes that girls unconsciously envy men’s genitals, though de Beauvoir points out that this is actually because society values male virility, and not because of some natural feminine impulse. She also objects to his assumption that all human behavior is driven by pleasure seeking.
Friedrich Engels
A German philosopher, Engels believes that history is based in the development of technology. In the Stone Age, men took on tasks requiring greater strength while women remained in a domestic sphere, but as technology advanced and private property became an option, men’s work came to seem more valuable and men could subjugate women because they had access to wealth. Social and economic oppression of women are thus closely related. Theorists like Engels believe that women can only be socially liberated once both they and the lower classes are liberated from their economic constraints. de Beauvoir criticizes this theory for failing to explain how a communitarian society came to value private property, and why men value property in the first place. She also believes he fails to consider that women were only “weak” relative to men. Technology was not enough to reduce women to an inferior position—men also had to view her as an Other and desire to dominate her, in the first place.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
de Beauvoir points out that Proudhon is the one reformist of the 19th century who did not support women’s liberation. He supports small property owners but believes in confining women to their homes. He proves an exception to the fact that most people attempting to restrict women at this time tended to be conservative. According to Proudhon, however, only a man should count as an individual because of his physical strength, whereas a woman should simply act as his support. de Beauvoir lists Proudhon as an unfortunate setback to women’s liberation in the reform movement.
Henry de Montherlant
de Beauvoir summarizes this novelist’s vilification of mothers and lovers. He views transcendence as a state, meaning he himself is a transcendent force. Montherlant believes that the feminine is only worshipped in times of weakness, and represents an unfavorable and opposing force for men. Men must escape from mothers who want to keep them children forever, and lovers who want to make them weak in order to hold onto them. Overall, he views femininity as monstrous and women as useful only in regards to the pleasure their bodies can give men. de Beauvoir points out that Montherlant aligned with Nazi ideology, connecting his negative views on women with his views on “weakness” in general. She explains that he only tears down values, and offers no replacement. His heroes choose fear and self-absorption, which means they never reach any real transcendence.
D.H. Lawrence
de Beauvoir explains the novelist Lawrence’s belief that the two sexes are polar opposites, each complete on its own but essentially different from the other. He situates transcendence in the phallus, through which men conquer women. He believes that uniting through sex means giving up personal sovereignty to join together in a higher act with this other person. This unification is miraculous, but requires giving up an individual personality. At first glance, this philosophy seems to assume that men and women are equal. However, de Beauvoir points out that Lawrence actually believes in male supremacy. He believes women should enter into monogamous unions and give themselves up completely to men. In conclusion, he also expects women to be defined as the Other.
Paul Claudel
A Catholic poet and dramatist, he believes that everything created by God is good and serves a certain purpose. At first glance, he might seem to exalt women. For Claudel, woman, however represents an element of risk introduced to tempt and challenge men. He believes the only transcendent force is God, and through God men should be active while servile women can be their equal. He believes in marriage as a sacred union in which both man and woman possess one another. However, men take precedence in the social hierarchy and women should be faithful and loyal. Claudel does believe women have a direct connection with God, and can reach transcendence through Him. However, de Beauvoir points out that women’s saintliness is still something he understands only from a man’s perspective; for Claudel, woman represents man’s salvation but there is no reciprocity to this relationship.
Andre Breton
de Beauvoir analyzes this famous French author and poet’s depiction of women. He believes that transcendence comes from the divine being present on earth in the form of beauty. Through men’s passion for women, beauty exists in the world. A woman is therefore carnal and natural. She represents salvation for men through the love she inspires, and thus carries the heavy burden of being a redeeming force for humankind. de Beauvoir concludes that his singular focus on poetry means that he envisions woman as a figure for poetry and, thus, as Other.
Stendhal
According to de Beauvoir, the novelist Stendhal is refreshing because he does not believe in a feminine mystery, but rather loves women sensually. He thinks of women as concrete beings and thus loves them more truthfully than other artists and theorists do. Like de Beauvoir, he concludes that women are human beings “reduced to semi-slavery by idiotic customs,” as opposed to evil or purely good beings. In women, he values a kind of authenticity and naïveté that he believes they can access more easily than men. He recognizes in them a struggle to accomplish freedom in spite of the many obstacles society places in their way. de Beauvoir credits him with recognizing woman as a subject herself as opposed to a function of male heroes, making him different from every other novelist she analyzes. In fact, he even projects himself into female characters in his novels.
Sophia Tolstoy
The wife of the famous Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy, Sophia is best known for diaries she kept while they were married, and for their violent arguments. She and Tolstoy had an unhappy marriage that was plagued by her jealousy and possessiveness, and his complete focus on his work. Toward the end of his life, Leo Tolstoy actually fled his home in order to get away from his wife and daughter’s arguments over his will. de Beauvoir includes many excerpts from Sophia’s diaries in order to illustrate one type of unhappy marriage. According to de Beauvoir, Sophia suffered in her marriage because she was too young to know what to expect, and was constantly disappointed by how little Tolstoy had to offer her. de Beauvoir analyzes Sophia’s diaries to show that she felt bored, unwanted, and useless throughout her marriage. In this way, Sophia represents many of the women of this century, who were married off very young to older men and were expected to spend all of their time caring for their families.
