The Odyssey Homer

Homecoming

Homecoming (Ancient Greek: νόστος, nostos) is a central theme of the Odyssey.[26] Anna Bonafazi of the University of Cologne writes that, in Homer, nostos is "return home from Troy, by sea".[27] Agatha Thornton examines nostos in the context of characters other than Odysseus, in order to provide an alternative for what might happen after the end of the Odyssey.[28] For instance, one example is that of Agamemnon's homecoming versus Odysseus'. Upon Agamemnon's return, his wife Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus, kill Agamemnon. Agamemnon's son, Orestes, out of vengeance for his father's death, kills Aegisthus. This parallel compares the death of the suitors to the death of Aegisthus and sets Orestes up as an example for Telemachus.[28] Also, because Odysseus knows about Clytemnestra's betrayal, Odysseus returns home in disguise in order to test the loyalty of his own wife, Penelope.[28] Later, Agamemnon praises Penelope for not killing Odysseus. It is because of Penelope that Odysseus has fame and a successful homecoming. This successful homecoming is unlike Achilles, who has fame but is dead, and Agamemnon, who had an unsuccessful homecoming resulting in his death.[28]

Wandering

Only two of Odysseus's adventures are described by the narrator. The rest of Odysseus' adventures are recounted by Odysseus himself. The two scenes described by the narrator are Odysseus on Calypso's island and Odysseus' encounter with the Phaeacians. These scenes are told by the poet to represent an important transition in Odysseus' journey: being concealed to returning home.[29]

Calypso's name comes from the Greek word kalúptō (καλύπτω), meaning 'to cover' or 'conceal', which is apt, as this is exactly what she does with Odysseus.[30] Calypso keeps Odysseus concealed from the world and unable to return home. After leaving Calypso's island, the poet describes Odysseus' encounters with the Phaeacians—those who "convoy without hurt to all men"[31]—which represents his transition from not returning home to returning home.[29]

Also, during Odysseus' journey, he encounters many beings that are close to the gods. These encounters are useful in understanding that Odysseus is in a world beyond man and that influences the fact he cannot return home.[29] These beings that are close to the gods include the Phaeacians who lived near the Cyclopes,[32] whose king, Alcinous, is the great-grandson of the king of the giants, Eurymedon, and the grandson of Poseidon.[29] Some of the other characters that Odysseus encounters are the cyclops Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon; Circe, a sorceress who turns men into animals; and the cannibalistic giants, the Laestrygonians.[29]

Guest-friendship

Throughout the course of the epic, Odysseus encounters several examples of xenia ("guest-friendship"), which provide models of how hosts should and should not act.[33][34] The Phaeacians demonstrate exemplary guest-friendship by feeding Odysseus, giving him a place to sleep, and granting him many gifts and a safe voyage home, which are all things a good host should do. Polyphemus demonstrates poor guest-friendship. His only "gift" to Odysseus is that he will eat him last.[34] Calypso also exemplifies poor guest-friendship because she does not allow Odysseus to leave her island.[34] Another important factor to guest-friendship is that kingship implies generosity. It is assumed that a king has the means to be a generous host and is more generous with his own property.[34] This is best seen when Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, begs Antinous, one of the suitors, for food and Antinous denies his request. Odysseus essentially says that while Antinous may look like a king, he is far from a king since he is not generous.[35]

According to J. B. Hainsworth, guest-friendship follows a very specific pattern:[36]

1. The arrival and the reception of the guest.
2. Bathing or providing fresh clothes to the guest.
3. Providing food and drink to the guest.
4. Questions may be asked of the guest and entertainment should be provided by the host.
5. The guest should be given a place to sleep, and both the guest and host retire for the night.
6. The guest and host exchange gifts, the guest is granted a safe journey home, and the guest departs.

Another important factor of guest-friendship is not keeping the guest longer than they wish and also promising their safety while they are a guest within the host's home.[33][37]

Testing

Another theme throughout the Odyssey is testing.[38] This occurs in two distinct ways. Odysseus tests the loyalty of others and others test Odysseus' identity. An example of Odysseus testing the loyalties of others is when he returns home.[38] Instead of immediately revealing his identity, he arrives disguised as a beggar and then proceeds to determine who in his house has remained loyal to him and who has helped the suitors. After Odysseus reveals his true identity, the characters test Odysseus' identity to see if he really is who he says he is.[38] For instance, Penelope tests Odysseus' identity by saying that she will move the bed into the other room for him. This is a difficult task since it is made out of a living tree that would require being cut down, a fact that only the real Odysseus would know, thus proving his identity.[38]

Testing also has a very specific type scene that accompanies it. Throughout the epic, the testing of others follows a typical pattern. This pattern is:[38][37]

1. Odysseus is hesitant to question the loyalties of others.
2. Odysseus tests the loyalties of others by questioning them.
3. The characters reply to Odysseus' questions.
4. Odysseus proceeds to reveal his identity.
5. The characters test Odysseus' identity.
6. There is a rise of emotions associated with Odysseus' recognition, usually lament or joy.
7. Finally, the reconciled characters work together.

Omens

Omens occur frequently throughout the Odyssey. Within the epic poem, they frequently involve birds.[39] According to Thornton, most crucial is who receives each omen and in what way it manifests. For instance, bird omens are shown to Telemachus, Penelope, Odysseus, and the suitors.[39] Telemachus and Penelope receive their omens as well in the form of words, sneezes, and dreams.[39] However, Odysseus is the only character who receives thunder or lightning as an omen.[40][41] She highlights this as crucial because lightning, as a symbol of Zeus, represents the kingship of Odysseus.[39] Odysseus is associated with Zeus throughout both the Iliad and the Odyssey.[42]

Omens are another example of a type scene in the Odyssey. Two important parts of an omen type scene are the recognition of the omen, followed by its interpretation.[39] In the Odyssey, all of the bird omens—with the exception of the first—show large birds attacking smaller birds.[39][37] Accompanying each omen is a wish which can be either explicitly stated or only implied.[39] For example, Telemachus wishes for vengeance[43] and for Odysseus to be home,[44] Penelope wishes for Odysseus' return,[45] and the suitors wish for the death of Telemachus.[46]