Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark

Production

Conception

George Lucas conceived Raiders of the Lost Ark in 1973, shortly after finishing the comedy drama American Graffiti (1973).[19][20] An old movie poster of a heroic character leaping from a horse to a truck reminded Lucas of the early 20th-century serial films he enjoyed as a youth, such as Buck Rogers (1939), Zorro's Fighting Legion (1939), Spy Smasher (1942), and Don Winslow of the Navy (1942).[12][15][19][20] He wanted to make a B movie modeled on those serials and conceived The Adventures of Indiana Smith, featuring a daring archaeologist named after his Alaskan Malamute dog.[12][19][20][21] Around the same time, Lucas was trying to adapt the space opera serial Flash Gordon (1936), but could not obtain the rights.[12][15][19] He shelved the Indiana Smith project to focus on creating his own space opera, Star Wars (1977).[12][19]

In 1975, Lucas discussed his serial film idea with his friend Philip Kaufman. The pair worked on a story for two weeks.[22] Lucas imagined his character as a college professor and archaeologist adventurer, based on his own appreciation for archaeology and famous archaeologists like Hiram Bingham III, Roy Chapman Andrews, and Leonard Woolley.[23] Kaufman removed Lucas' vision of Smith as a nightclub patron and womanizer, and suggested the Ark of the Covenant as the film's central goal;[19][22] he learned of the Ark from his hematologist.[24] The Ark provided a source of conflict for the hero and the Nazis, playing off Nazi leader Adolf Hitler's historical fascination with the occult.[25]

Lucas wanted Kaufman to direct the film, but because he was already committed to working on the western The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976), Lucas paused the idea again and resumed working on Star Wars.[19][26] In May 1977, Lucas vacationed in Hawaii to avoid any potential negative news about the theatrical debut of Star Wars. He invited Steven Spielberg to join him and his wife. On a beach near the Mauna Kea Beach Hotel, Lucas and Spielberg discussed their next projects. Spielberg wanted to direct a James Bond film, but Lucas pitched him The Adventures of Indiana Smith.[27][28][29] Lucas still hoped Kaufman would direct it, but a few months later it was clear he could not participate and Lucas asked Spielberg to replace him.[28]

Writing

Lawrence Kasdan, Spielberg's recent discovery, was chosen to write the script. Kasdan had been working as a professional screenwriter for only a month but Lucas agreed to hire him after reading his script for Continental Divide (1981).[21][28] In January 1978, Lucas, Kasdan, and Spielberg spent about nine hours a day over three to five days at Lucas' assistant's house in Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles, developing Lucas' outline.[c] Several ideas came from these discussions, including the boulder trap, the monkey in Cairo, Toht burning the medallion's imprint into his hand, and government agents locking the Ark away.[30] Kasdan realized Spielberg and Lucas had several set pieces in mind, but they were looking for someone else to do the hard work of piecing them together.[21]

Spielberg hated the name Indiana Smith, believing it would remind audiences of the Steve McQueen character Nevada Smith. All three men agreed to use "Jones" instead.[12][30] Actors Clint Eastwood and Toshiro Mifune, and the James Bond character, were the basis of Jones' own.[12][28] Lucas wanted Jones to be a kung fu practitioner and a playboy, funding his lifestyle with the spoils of his adventures, but Spielberg and Kasdan felt the character was complicated enough being an adventurer and archaeologist.[12][17][30] Spielberg suggested making Jones an avid gambler or an alcoholic, but Lucas wanted Jones to be a role model who is "honest and true and trusting."[12][30] Both men felt it was important Jones be fallible, vulnerable, and as capable of comedic moments as well as serious ones. They intended him to be someone the audience could relate to and idolize.[27] Lucas suggested Marion would have a romantic past, at the age of 11, with the much older Jones; Spielberg replied, "she had better be older".[21]

While Spielberg directed 1941 (1979), Kasdan used his office to write Raiders, taking inspiration from early 20th-century serials and adventure films like Red River (1948), Seven Samurai (1954), and The Magnificent Seven (1960).[21][31] He wrote Jones as an antihero, an archaeologist reduced to grave-robbing.[31] Kasdan wanted a supporting cast with their own unique characteristics and believed it was important these characters had a memorable impact.[31] He described how the hardest part of writing was explaining how Jones would fall into successive dangerous events and survive, and how he traveled between locations.[21] In August 1978, after approximately five months, Kasdan completed his first draft.[12][19][28]

Spielberg described the draft as good but too long; Kasdan and Lucas collaborated to trim and refine it.[28] The script was a globe-spanning tale set in the United States, Egypt, Greece, and Nepal.[12] Several elements were cut, including a journey to Shanghai that would lead to a minecart chase and Jones using a gong to shield himself from gunfire, ideas later used in the prequel Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984).[15][21] To his frustration, much of Kasdan's love story between Jones and Marion was trimmed, as were scenes showing the mutual attraction between Marion and Belloq.[12][21][32] The screenplay was completed by December 1979.[28]

Development and pre-production

Producer Frank Marshall in 2012. As well as producing, Marshall had a minor role in the film as a Nazi pilot.

Lucas wanted to fund Raiders of the Lost Ark himself, but lacked the money.[12] Lucasfilm offered the project to several Hollywood studios. They rejected it, in part because of the proposed $20 million budget,[d] but also because of the deal Lucas offered.[12][31] He wanted the studio to provide the budget, have no creative input and allow him to retain control of the licensing rights and any sequels.[31] The studios considered this deal unacceptable.[12][31] They were also hesitant because Spielberg's had delivered a succession of films over-schedule and over-budget;[31] his recent effort, 1941, was both over-budget and a critical failure. However, Lucas refused to do the project without Spielberg.[17][31][33]

Paramount Pictures president Michael Eisner compromised with Lucas, agreeing to his deal in exchange for exclusive rights to any sequels and severe penalties for exceeding the schedule or budget. Lucas reportedly negotiated a salary between $1 million and $4 million plus a share of the gross profits, though a separate report stated he received only net profits. Spielberg received up to $1.5 million as director and a share of the gross profits.[12][19]

Producer Frank Marshall, who had experience on smaller independent films, was hired because Spielberg believed he would keep the film on schedule and budget. Spielberg also hired cinematographer Douglas Slocombe and production designer Norman Reynolds because he liked their previous works, and his long-time collaborator Michael Kahn as editor.[12][28] Lucas served as a second unit director[32][34] and the film's executive producer, along with his acquaintance Howard Kazanjian, whom Lucas believed would be a disciplined influence and not indulge the filmmakers' larger ambitions. He also brought in his long-time collaborator Robert Watts as associate producer and production manager. Paramount mandated a filming schedule of 85 days; Lucas, Spielberg, and Marshall agreed on a self-imposed 73-day schedule. Spielberg was determined to avoid criticism for another schedule overrun.[12][28]

Six months of pre-production began in December 1979.[28][35] Spielberg preferred to spend a year in pre-production, but worked at a faster pace to keep the budget low.[28] Spielberg and Lucas were both simultaneously working on other projects.[12] Artists Ed Verreaux, Dave Negron, Michael Lloyd, and Joe Johnston provided extensive storyboarding, with over 80% of the script represented, equaling approximately 6,000 images. This helped Spielberg pre-visualize scenes and limit the time taken to set up shots. The script described the opening of the ark only as "all hell breaks loose", and the artists were tasked with envisioning what should happen. Each offered different aspects: spirits, flames, and weird light effects; Johnston was tasked with combining all three.[12][28] Spielberg also had miniature sets of larger scenes built to plan layouts and lighting, including the Well of Souls, the Tanis dig site, and the Cairo marketplace.[35] They contained 1-inch tall figurines to suggest how many extras would be required.[36] Among changes made at this stage, Spielberg abandoned his idea for Toht to have a mechanical arm that could be replaced with a machine gun or flamethrower. Lucas said it put the film into a different genre.[21]

Casting

Actor Tom Selleck; initially cast as Indiana Jones, Selleck was forced to withdraw due to his contractual obligations to the television series Magnum, P.I.

Lucas wanted a relatively unknown actor, willing to commit to a trilogy of films, to play Indiana Jones.[12] Those considered for the role included Bill Murray, Nick Nolte, Steve Martin, Chevy Chase, Tim Matheson, Nick Mancuso, Peter Coyote, Jack Nicholson, Jeff Bridges,[15] John Shea,[31] Sam Elliott,[37] and Harry Hamlin.[38] Casting director Mike Fenton favored Bridges but Lucas' wife and frequent collaborator Marcia Lucas preferred Tom Selleck.[12][19] Selleck was contractually obligated to filming the television series Magnum, P.I. if it were to be made into a full series. Lucas and Spielberg asked the show's studio, CBS, to release him 10 days early from his contract. Realizing Selleck was in demand, CBS greenlit Magnum P.I., forcing him to drop out and leaving the production with no lead actor only weeks before filming.[15][19][31] The 1980 actors strike later put the show on hiatus for three months, which would have allowed Selleck to star as Jones.[12]

Spielberg said Ford was perfect for the role after seeing him in The Empire Strikes Back; Kanzanjian said Ford had always been considered but not cast because he was already a well-known actor.[19] Lucas was concerned about seeming reliant on Ford by casting him in another film after Star Wars, and he also did not think he would commit to three films.[31] However, Ford thought it would be a fun project and agreed to the deal.[12][31] He negotiated a seven-figure salary, a percentage of the gross profits, and the option to re-write his dialogue.[12][19] Ford undertook extensive exercise to enhance his physique and trained for several weeks under stunt coordinator Glenn Randall to use a bullwhip, becoming proficient enough to disarm the Monkey Man (Vic Tablian); his wrist had to be rehabilitated to compensate for an old injury.[12][31] Ford's interpretation of the character was as an academic first and an adventurer second.[31]

For Jones' love interest Marion, Spielberg wanted someone akin to early 20th-century leading female icons like Irene Dunne, Barbara Stanwyck, and Ann Sheridan, who equaled their male counterparts.[27] Lucas wanted Debra Winger, but she was not interested, and Spielberg wanted his girlfriend Amy Irving, but she was unavailable.[12][19][39] They also considered Stephanie Zimbalist, Barbara Hershey and Sean Young.[15][31][38] Spielberg was aware of Karen Allen from her performance in Animal House (1978), portraying an independent female character, and she impressed him with her professionalism during auditions for Raiders.[12][40] One of the first things Spielberg asked Allen was "how well do you spit?".[19] Allen developed a backstory for Marion that included her mother's death and her relationship with Jones when she was 15–16, but Spielberg said it belonged in a different movie.[32] Kasdan named Marion after his grandmother-in-law,[32] and took Ravenwood from a Los Angeles street.[35]

Belloq was intended to be a sophisticated villain to counter the "beer-drinking" hero.[12] Spielberg cast Freeman after seeing him in the docudrama Death of a Princess (1980); Freeman's piercing eyes had captivated him.[41] Giancarlo Giannini and singer Jacques Dutronc were also considered.[31][41] Danny DeVito was approached to portray Sallah, described as a skinny, 5 ft (1.5 m) tall Egyptian like Gunga Din in Gunga Din (1939).[31][41] DeVito could not participate because of scheduling conflicts with his sitcom Taxi and because his agent wanted too much money.[19][41] Rhys-Davies was cast based on his performance in the 1980 miniseries Shōgun. Spielberg asked him to play the character as a mix of his Shōgun role and the character John Falstaff.[19][31] Ronald Lacey was cast as Toht because he reminded Spielberg of actor Peter Lorre.[15] Klaus Kinski was offered the role but chose to appear in the horror film Venom (1981) because it offered more money.[15]

Filming

On-set filming location, Elstree Studios (pictured 2009) in Hertfordshire, England.

Principal photography began on June 23, 1980.[12][42] Filming took place on location in La Rochelle in France, Tunisia in North Africa, and Hawaii, and on sets at Elstree Studios, England.[42][43] Elstree was chosen because it was well-staffed with artists and technicians who had worked on Star Wars.[12][14][28] On-location shooting cost around $100,000 a day in addition to crew salaries; sets cost an additional $4 million. The production could afford certain equipment only for a limited time, including a Panaglide camera stabilizer for smoother shots, and a camera crane for higher angles.[28] To maintain the tight schedule, Spielberg said he "...didn't do 30 or 40 takes; usually only four... Had I had more time and money, it would have turned out a pretentious movie."[12][43]

Filming began in La Rochelle, depicting the capture of the Bantu Wind by a Nazi U-boat.[12][42] Watts borrowed a submarine from the war film Das Boot (1981) on condition it not be taken into deep waters.[12] World War II German U-boat pens in La Rochelle represented the U-boat dock.[19][42] An original coal-fired tramp steamer boat could not be found for filming, so an Egyptian boat found in an Irish port was decorated appropriately and sailed to France.[12]

The production moved to Elstree Studios by June 30. Interiors included the scene featuring an imam deciphering the staff headpiece and the Peruvian temple.[12][14] There were repeated delays while filming the Well of Souls scene: there were too few snakes, a lack of anti-venom, and Stanley Kubrick's daughter Vivian—who was visiting Kubrick on the set of The Shining—called the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) about the treatment of the snakes.[12] The interior of Jones' school was filmed at The Royal Masonic School for Girls in Rickmansworth, in Hertfordshire; the exterior was the University of the Pacific in California.[44]

The Sahara desert near the Tozeur oasis in Tunisia was the location of the Tanis dig site in the film.

Tunisia was used to portray Egypt.[45] Spielberg described this phase as one of his worst filming experiences: the temperature was often over 130 °F (54 °C), and over 150 crew members became sick with amoebic dysentery from the local food.[e] Spielberg was one of the few to remain healthy because he ate food and water he brought from England.[32] Lucas also suffered a severe sunburn and facial swelling.[12][32] The Cairo village was filmed in the city of Kairouan.[44] A day of filming was lost there because over 300 TV antennas had to be removed from the surrounding houses.[12] Budget constraints affected Spielberg's desire to have 2,000 extras as diggers; he had to settle for 600.[28] Stuntman Terry Richards, who portrayed the swordsman nonchalantly dispatched by Jones, spent weeks practicing sword skills for an extended fight scene. Ford was unable to perform for long periods while suffering from dysentery, and it was decided to shorten the fight scene significantly.[18] The Sidi Bouhlel canyon near the city of Tozeur is where a rocket launcher-equipped Jones confronts the Nazis for the Ark. Lucas had used the canyon in Star Wars to portray the planet Tatooine.[44][45][46] During the scene, a fly crawled onto Freeman's lip during his dialogue, but he continued to deliver his lines.[32] Although it appeared to be eaten, Freeman clarified it flew away.[47]

In late September, filming moved to Hawaii for exterior shots for the film's Peruvian opening.[12][44] The Paramount logo dissolving into a natural mountain was an improvisation by Spielberg based on his own childhood habit of doing the same while making films; the mountain is Kalalea Mountain on the island of Kauaʻi.[14][15][35] Though the scene appears to be a single location, it was shot across 10 areas in Hawaii, including the Huleia National Wildlife Refuge.[14][45] It was originally more elaborate and longer, featuring an added betrayal by one of Jones' guides, resulting in a fight, and it had more dialogue; this was deemed unnecessary and removed for a tighter paced sequence.[14] The cave's exterior was considered a perfect location, though a nearby pool was a mosquito breeding ground; even with anti-mosquito equipment the crew was bitten.[12] The donkeys used for the trek suffered lameness. It was difficult to find replacements, and eventually, a pair of gray donkeys were painted brown with colored hairspray and flown by helicopter to the Nā Pali Coast State Park to finish the scene.[12]

The loosely detailed script led to much improvisation; where the script described three people talking in a room, in the film it took place in a quarry alongside 500 extras.[32] Scenes like a student of Jones's flashing the "Love You" message written across her eyelids and Marion putting on a dress to conceal a weapon were also improvised.[12][35] Allen believed the latter scene focused on her character seducing Belloq, undermining her loyalty and love for Jones. She and Freeman collaborated to develop the idea of Marion getting Belloq drunk instead.[40] Allen, Lacey, Freeman, and Rhys-Davies often spent time together between filming to talk and discuss their characters. Allen described Ford as a private person who would not discuss his character in detail, and it took her a while to adapt to his working style.[32] Filming concluded in September 1980, after 73 days.[12][28][43] Lucas described it as the film he had the fewest problems with because of the lack of studio interference.[32]

Post-production

Post-production lasted about two months and focused mainly on special effects and pick-up shots.[12] Spielberg's first cut was close to three hours long before he and Kahn re-edited it to just under two hours.[12] Lucas was happy with this edit, but later asked if he could shorten the ending. He and Kahn collaborated on the edit; Spielberg said he was happy with their changes.[48] The final cut of the film runs for 115 minutes.[49] Marcia Lucas opined there was no emotional closure for Jones and Marion because she was absent following the closure of the Ark. Marcia is not credited in the film, but her suggestion led Spielberg to shoot a final exterior sequence on the steps of San Francisco City Hall showing Jones and Marion together.[44][50]

Other changes included the addition of a scene where the Ark makes a humming noise in the Bantu Wind hold and the removal of a scene showing Jones holding on to the U-boat periscope to follow the Nazis; Spielberg thought it looked poor and hoped the audiences would not care how Jones accomplished the feat.[12][35] Lucas removed a scene of a man fainting at the sight of Jones and Marion emerging from the Well of Souls because he thought the joke did not fit with the tone of the film.[21] Shots of the Douglas DC-3 Jones and Marion use to fly out of Nepal were repurposed from the adventure film Lost Horizon (1973), and an establishing shot outside Jones' home was taken from The Hindenburg (1975). Spielberg justified the use of stock footage as cost-effective, and reasoned that only sharp-eyed viewers would notice.[12][34] Special effects supervisor Richard Edlund claimed that the street scene was done with miniatures.[12]

Music

John Williams composed the score for Raiders of the Lost Ark. He said the music did not have to be serious for the film and was instead theatrical and excessive.[51] Williams spent a few weeks working on the Indiana Jones theme, more commonly known as "The Raiders March" that plays during the main character's heroic scenes. Two separate pieces were played for Spielberg, who wanted to use both. These pieces became the main theme and musical bridge of "The Raiders March".[52]

For the romantic theme, Williams took inspiration from older films like the drama Now, Voyager (1942) to create something more emotionally monumental that he felt would contrast well with the film's humor and lighter moments.[51][52] Williams used "dark" orchestral pieces to represent the actions of the Nazis, using the "seventh degree on the scale of the bottom". He said this signified a militaristic evil.[52] To create something suitably biblical for the Ark of the Covenant, he used a mix of chorus and orchestra.[51]


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