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Summary and Analysis of the Epistle
SummaryIn the Epistle that precedes the play, Jonson dedicates Volpone to Oxford University and Cambridge University, calling them "most equal Sisters" (line 12). To begin, he states that wit alone cannot be transcendent. Rather, it requires a time, a place, and a favorable audience. Thus, he says, a poet must incline himself toward these things. Jonson thanks Cambridge and Oxford for accepting his work. He then decries the "too much licence of poetasters in this time" (lines 23-4). By this, he means that his contemporaries do not observe the rules of dramaturgy. He says that, to be done well, this kind of uninhibited writing requires great skill and therefore should not be attempted too often. In one of the more significant lines of the Epistle, Jonson aphorizes, "For, if men will impartially, and not asquint, look toward the offices and function of a poet, they will easily conclude to themselves the impossibility of any man's being the good poet without first being a good man" (lines 29-33). Jonson goes on to define a good poet as an inspiring, well-mannered teacher of ethics and laments that none of "the writers of these days" (line 41) fit this bill. He takes part of the responsibility for the low quality of the theater and admits it would be slander to say that all of his contemporaries are responsible. He says he will be called sharp, proud, and bitter for deriding his contemporaries, but asks his critics to consider that he has not deprived them of their dignity. He maintains his innocence. Jonson then claims he would rather stick to his principles and be unknown than stoop to a lower quality of writing and become famous. He quotes Horace, saying "Although he is uninjured, everyone fears for himself and is angry." He emphasizes how serious he is because his reputation as well as the reputations of his contemporaries are on the line. Jonson states that the "principal end of poesie [is] to inform men in the best reason of living" (lines 111-2). He says that though the denouement of Volpone may be criticized, it is not without its purpose. He comments that it is the "office of a comic poet to imitate justice, and instruct to life, as well as purity of language, or stir up gentle affections" (lines 123-5). Lastly, Jonson passionately vows to resurrect the art of poetry. AnalysisThe most important points to emerge from the Epistle are Jonson's statements regarding the duty of a poet and the purpose of comedy. As Volpone proves, Jonson believed that all drama was meant to be didactic, that is, to instruct viewers in the proper way of living. Thus, even comedies are supposed to moralize. If Jonson seems defensive about Volpone's ending, it is because Volpone's ending is unconventional for a comedy. In general, Elizabethan comedy operated on the principle all's well that ends well. However, the ending of Volpone is certainly not happy. Jonson defends this by saying that in ancient times, comedies did not always happily. He also affirms that his unhappy ending follows from his didactic purpose: he wishes to show us the just desserts of greed and deception, and as virtually every character in Volpone is a greedy deceiver, it's only natural that none of them come to a good end. In any case, Jonson's vow to "raise the despised head of poetry again" (line 131) is somewhat presumptuous considering that poetry, or at least stage poetry, i.e. theater, was quite popular at the beginning of the 17th century. Today's reader should consider that Jonson's definition of 'poetry' is narrower than ours. He considers true poetry to follow Classical ideals -- that is, to serve a didactic purpose and to follow the Classical unities of time, place and action. His vow to restore poetry, then, is really just a promise to revive this Classical model of good drama. His promise makes perfect sense in the context of his dedication: Cambridge and Oxford, the defenders of Classical values in Renaissance England, would be quite receptive to his stated love of the Classics, and his promise to transform the English theater into a more erudite, genteel and serious institution. (Incidentally, Jonson's plays, though popular, certainly did not alter English drama as seismically as he promises -- which is, perhaps, a good thing.)
Summary and Analysis of the Argument and the Prologue
SummaryThe Argument In the Argument, Jonson summarizes the main conflict of the play in the form of an acrostic poem. (An acrostic is a poem in which the first letter of each line spells a word; in this case, the poem spells "Volpone.") Volpone, a miser who is close to no one but his servant Mosca, (referred to as "his Parasite") increases his wealth by pretending to be mortally ill, encouraging people to give him gifts in the hopes of becoming his heir. Mosca, however, plays these would-be heirs against each other ("weaves / Other cross-plots") until Volpone's scheme is nearly exposed by two informers. Volpone and Mosca then conspire to discredit these informers ("New tricks for safety are sought") to prevent their scheme from coming to light. In the end, Volpone and Mosca turn against each other and lead each other into ruin ("all are sold"). The Prologue The Prologue expresses Jonson's hope that the play will be both entertaining and enlightening. Jonson claims that this is his greatest skill. Jonson responds to critics who accuse him of writing too slowly by boasting that he wrote Volpone in only five weeks and without the help of anyone (e.g., coadjutor, journeyman, novice, tutor). He then informs the audience that there is no slapstick in his play, but only refined comedy appropriate to his higher purpose. He points out that he observes the Classical laws of time, place, and persons. Finally, he informs the audience that they will laugh until they are red-faced and refreshed. AnalysisThe Argument In the Argument, the two main characters of the play are first introduced. Volpone, which means "fox" in Italian, and Mosca, which means "fly" in Italian, are both appropriately named in keeping with the theme of Animalization. Right away, the reader or viewer is alerted to the characters' status as allegorical, which invites us to consider the play as much as a fable as an entertainment. This suits Jonson's stated moral intention. The very existence of the Argument also reinforces this moral intention. Jonson describes the main action of the play before we see it; thus nothing that follows should come as much of a surprise. The Argument transforms a first reading (or viewing) of the play into a second reading. That is, we are freed from sorting out what is happening so that we can concentrate on why it is happening. This is Jonson's hope - as articulated in the Prologue: that his audience will focus on the moral lessons of the play, the "why," rather than simply on the plot, the "what." The Prologue As in the Epistle, Jonson's boasts in the Prologue can, for the most part, be interpreted as jabs at Shakespeare. When he brags that he wrote Volpone without the help of anyone, Jonson is attempting to set himself apart from Shakespeare, whose later works are believed to have been written with the help of an apprentice. Likewise, Jonson makes a point to say that he does not employ slapstick in his play, thus setting him apart from Shakespeare, who was known to make use of vulgar humor (e.g., sexual innuendo) as well as slapstick in his efforts to appeal to the groundlings (the lower-class audience members who could only afford to stand on the ground in front of the stage). To conclude the Prologue, Jonson notes that he observes the laws of time, place, and persons. Here he is referring to the Classical Unities, three dramatic conventions which derive from Aristotle's Poetics. They are the unity of time, - the play's action begins and ends within 24 hours - the unity of place, - the play's action occurs in a single setting or a reasonably confined area - and the unity of action - the play's action centers around one main conflict or plotline. In Volpone, the title character's rise and fall take place during a single day in which he sees "clients" in the morning and stands trial in the late afternoon or evening. Although the courthouse, Volpone's house, and the streets are all designated as settings for different scenes, Volpone's action takes place exclusively within the city limits of Venice. Finally, the main conflict of Volpone, as summarized in the Argument, is the deceptive way in which Volpone makes his fortune. It is unclear why Jonson chose to call this last unity the "law of persons." Whereas Jonson adhered strictly to Aristotle's Unities, Shakespeare took much greater liberty with them. In The Winter's Tale, for example, the passage of sixteen years is artificially introduced by a character named Father Time. In addition, the kingdoms of Sicilia and Bohemia, separated by several days' travel at sea, both represent settings of The Winter's Tale. While Jonson saw Aristotle's Unities as laws, Shakespeare saw them more as guidelines, to be bent or broken at the playwright's discretion.
Summary and Analysis of Act One
SummaryAct One, Scene One Shortly after waking up in his large bed, Volpone greets both the day and his gold fortune. In his opening soliloquy, he proclaims that gold is his soul as well as the soul of the world. He declares that he is happier to see his gold than the earth is to see the spring sun at the end of winter. He vows that the sun pales in comparison to gold, its son, which gleams like light on the day of creation. He asks to kiss his treasure and insists that the Age of Gold must have been the greatest in history to be so named. Gold, he says, brings more happiness than friends or family and has the looks of Venus, the love of twenty thousand Cupids. It cannot speak or act for itself, but gold, which Volpone calls a saint, makes men speak and act on its behalf. With gold, hell would be transformed into heaven since gold is equal to virtue, fame, honor and everything. Whoever possesses it will be noble, valiant, honest and wise, says Volpone. Mosca finishes his thought by saying that it is better to be rich than wise. Volpone qualifies his assertions by saying that he gets greater satisfaction from the clever way he obtains his gold than from the gold itself. He is proud that he is not a farmer, a butcher, a miller, a glassblower, a merchant, or a usurer. Mosca continues to fawn until Volpone interrupts him and asks him to fetch Androgyno, Nano, and Castrone. After Mosca leaves, Volpone describes to the audience how he cons "clients" (1.1.75) out of coins and jewels while they compete for his inheritance. He compares it to dangling a cherry in front of their mouths and letting it "knock against their lips" (1.1.89). Act One, Scene Two Nano, Androgyno, and Castrone enter and introduce their skit which follows the soul of Pythagoras, an ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician, during its transmigration, or passage from one body to another. In a final comical twist, the soul of Pythagoras at last transmigrates into the body of Androgyno, who indicates that the fool is the form he would prefer to take in his next transmigration because the fool is the "one creature that [he] can call blessed" (1.2.57). After he takes credit for the skit, Mosca breaks into a song which praises fools for the joy they bring to others through their willingness to speak and act freely. When a knock comes at the door, Nano, Androgyno, and Castrone are shooed away so that Mosca and Volpone can make preparations for Voltore, their first "client." Act One, Scene Three Voltore brings an antique plate to Volpone and feigns sympathy by saying "would to heaven / I could as well give health to you as that plate!" (1.3.20) While Volpone pretends to be on the verge of death, Mosca tells Voltore that he has been named Volpone's sole heir. Mosca asks that he be included in Voltore's will in exchange for his advocacy on Voltore's behalf. Mosca then explains that Voltore was chosen as heir because Volpone admires his profession, that of an advocate, or lawyer. No sooner does Voltore leave than Corbaccio comes to the door. Act One, Scene Four Corbaccio, a feeble, nearly deaf old man, offers Volpone an opiate to help with his sleep troubles. Mosca declines it for fear that it is poison, telling Corbaccio that Volpone doesn't trust doctors and doesn't believe in medicine. Corbaccio asks about Volpone's apoplexy and Mosca rattles off a list of ghastly symptoms. With each symptom that Mosca names, Corbaccio responds by saying "Good" (1.4.41). Ultimately, Corbaccio expresses satisfaction that he will outlive Volpone. When Mosca tells Corbaccio that Volpone's will has not yet been written, Corbaccio presents Volpone with a bag of gold coins. Mosca then assures Corbaccio that he will be Volpone's heir. Mosca instructs Corbaccio to rewrite his own will so as to name Volpone, not his son Bonario, as his heir. Corbaccio agrees to do so after Mosca convinces him that because he will outlive Volpone, Corbaccio can later change his will so that his son inherits both his and Volpone's fortunes. As Corbaccio is leaving, Mosca makes several snide remarks which Corbaccio cannot hear. Volpone showers Mosca with praise for his conniving and scoffs at Corbaccio's old age, saying "What a rare punishment / Is avarice to itself!" (1.4.143-4) Act One, Scene Five Corvino enters Volpone's house bearing a pearl and a diamond. Mosca informs him that Volpone is as good as dead. Volpone does not speak and, according to Mosca, cannot hear, so Mosca tells Corvino to place the diamond in Volpone' s hand in order to make him understand. Mosca tells Corvino that he is Volpone's heir and Corvino hugs Mosca. Mosca explains that Volpone has numerous illegitimate children, including Castrone, Androgyno, and Nano, but has left them nothing. In order to convince Corvino that Volpone can't hear their discussion, Mosca shouts insults into Volpone's ear and encourages Corvino to join in. Corvino calls Mosca his friend and his partner and tells him, "Thou...shalt share in all my fortunes" (1.5.80). Mosca replies, "Excepting one...Your gallant wife, sir" (1.5.82) Volpone looks over his plate, his gold coins, his diamond, and his pearl, calling them "Good morning's purchase" (1.5.90). Lady Would-be Politic comes to the door, but Volpone asks Mosca to have her return in three hours when he will be drunk. Mosca then describes at length the beauty of Corvino's wife. When Mosca says she is "Bright as your gold! and lovely as your gold!" (1.5.114), Volpone decides he must see her. They agree to go to her heavily guarded household in disguise. AnalysisAct One, Scene One Volpone's opening soliloquy sets the moral tone of the play. That he wakes up and says good morning to his gold suggests that Volpone is utterly consumed by Greed. After greed, he moves on to blasphemy, calling his gold a saint. He makes a pun, calling gold the "son of Sol," (1.1.10) where Sol means both sun and a gold coin. Volpone then literally begins worshiping his gold, comparing it to the Roman god Venus. In Jonson's judgment, Volpone is not only committing the mortal sin of Greed, but also violating the first of the Ten Commandments, thou shall worship no gods before me. Volpone even goes so far as to call gold the "dumb god that giv'st all men tongues" (1.1.22). But Volpone's religious allusions are monotheistic as well as polytheistic. In describing the brightness of his gold, Volpone makes reference to the first day of creation. When he says that gold "mak'st men do all things," (1.1.23) Volpone is essentially ascribing the divine quality of omnipotence to his gold. After his opening soliloquy, Volpone commits the mortal sin of pride by showing such great satisfaction in his money-making scheme. In this first scene of the play, the audience is also introduced to the second central character Mosca, who embodies the themes of Animalization and Parasitism. Mosca is seen flitting around Volpone, finishing his sentences and interrupting him with flattery. Notice that Volpone's opening soliloquy (1.1.1-28) as well as his follow-up speech describing the "cunning purchase of [his] wealth" (1.1.30-40) both end with dashes, indicating that he didn't quite finish before Mosca chimed in. Near the end of the scene, Volpone says, "Hold thee, Mosca" (1.1.66), hands him some money, and shoos him away like the fly that he is named for. In this first scene, Mosca truly earns the nickname he carries throughout the play - "his Parasite." Act One, Scene Two Scene Two marks the first appearance of Nano, Castrone, and Androgyno. Like Volpone and Mosca, they are all appropriately named. Nano the Dwarf's name means "small"; Castrone the Eunuch's name has the same root as the word castrate; Androgyno the Hermaphrodite's name has the same root as the word androgynous. In keeping with his obsession with looking and watching (see 1.1, in which he checks on his gold immediately after waking up), Volpone shows an interest in theater in this scene. Taken in context, Nano's recitation plays perfectly into the theme of Animalization. The soul of Pythagoras passing into the bodies of a mule and a donkey is consistent with the soul of Mosca representing a fly and the soul of Volpone representing a fox. The skit also epitomizes the theme of Metatheatricality: the performance of Nano, Castrone, and Androgyno is a play within a play. This play within the play is to Volpone what Volpone is to us. That is, the character Volpone is the audience for the skit just as we are the audience for the play Volpone. Thus, the skit can be seen as Jonson's satire of Elizabethan theater. Accordingly, it is clear that Jonson does not hold a high opinion of his contemporaries. As he did in the Epistle and the Prologue, Jonson is criticizing Elizabethan theater for its supposed low quality. The idea of a philosopher turning into an ass is low-brow humor at its worst. Thus Jonson mocks the type of comic relief which Shakespeare often employed in his plays. In A Midsummer Night's Dream, for example, the character Nick Bottom is literally turned into an ass. The reception of the skit is as important (and satirical) as its content. Mosca, being the sycophant that he is, takes credit for writing the skit only after Volpone says that he enjoyed it. In Jonson's opinion, Mosca is akin to the Elizabethan dramatists who aimed to please their audience and, in doing so, lowered the quality of their writing. Jonson's prerogative, as stated in the Epistle and the Prologue, was to please, but first to teach. Act One, Scenes Three, Four, and Five In these three scenes, the theme of Parasitism predominates. Earlier, Jonson introduced Mosca as the foremost Parasite in the play. However, the characters Voltore, Corbaccio, and Corvino can all be considered Mosca's foils. In hoping to feed off of Volpone's fortune, they, too, are like the flies that hover around a dead body. And fittingly, they are all named for carrion birds: in Italian, Voltore means "vulture," Corbaccio means "raven," and Corvino means "crow." When Mosca tells Voltore that Volpone admires his profession, it is foreshadowing for 5.2 in which Mosca states that, for his phenomenal performance as a lawyer, Voltore deserves to be deceived. It can be inferred that Jonson didn't have much respect for the legal profession. As Voltore, Corbaccio, and Corvino each come and go, Mosca gradually unveils his plan. Mosca not only makes each of them think he is the heir, but also guarantees himself a place in each of their wills. Of course, these three scenes abound with dramatic irony. We the audience know from the Argument that Mosca is deceiving not only Voltore, Corbaccio, and Corvino, but also Volpone. But Volpone does not know this. Thus, when Volpone says "What a rare punishment / Is avarice to itself!" (1.4.143-4) he is unknowingly foreshadowing his own demise. In 1.5, Mosca begins his manipulation of Volpone. First, Mosca mentions Celia's name in passing. Then, he uses Volpone's own language against him. By describing Celia's beauty using the imagery of gold, Mosca purposefully appeals to Volpone's greatest desire. Mosca even uses the word "cherries" (1.5.121) to describe the sweetness of Celia's cheeks - the same word the Volpone used to describe how he tempts his would be heirs (see 1.1.89). By the end of Act One, it is clear that Mosca controls the action of the play.
Summary and Analysis of Act Two
SummaryAct Two, Scene One Outside of Corvino's house in the public square, Sir Politic Would-be and Peregrine discuss England, their home country. Sir Politic tells Peregrine that he is away from England because his wife is fond of Venice. Peregrine becomes suspicious that he is being mocked when Sir Politic asks if it is true that a raven made a nest in one of the King's royal ships. Peregrine quickly comes to gather, however, that Sir Politic is full of hot-air. Jokingly, Peregrine confirms the story of the raven as well as a rumor that a lioness gave birth in the Tower of London; Sir Politic becomes agitated at these bad omens. Peregrine comments to the audience that Sir Politic would make a good actor. Act Two, Scenes Two and Three While discussing the death of Master Stone, a clown who Sir Politic believed to be a spy, Sir Politic and Peregrine are interrupted by the entrance of Mosca and Nano, in disguise, who begin to set up a mountebank's platform. Though Peregrine protests that mountebanks are "lewd impostors" (2.1.14), Sir Politic insists that "They are the only knowing men of Europe!" (2.1.9) Volpone enters in the guise of Scoto of Mantua, a well-known mountebank. Upon his platform, Volpone clears the name of Scoto and advertises his oil, Oglio del Scoto, as an elixir. Ironically, while doing so, Volpone notes that gold is powerless to heal bodily afflictions like colds, and that good health is priceless. He also claims that he despises money. After pretending to offer his elixir at a discount, he asks for a handkerchief as a favor from a member of the audience. Corvino's wife Celia, who had been watching from her window above, tosses her handkerchief down to Volpone. Volpone tells her he will repay her with a magic powder. Corvino enters the public square and furiously breaks up the mountebank demonstration. Act Two, Scene Four Back at Volpone's house, Volpone swoons over Celia. Volpone tells Mosca to use his fortune in whatever way he needs in order to win Celia. Volpone admits that he never truly intended Corvino to be his heir, but that he intends to cuckold him. Volpone worries that his disguise was not good enough and that he will be discovered by the color of his beard and eyebrows. Mosca reassures him and makes a passing comment about wishing he could follow in Volpone's footsteps and yet "Escape [his] epilogue" (2.4.34). Act Two, Scene Five In his house, Corvino reprimands Celia for flirting with a lowly mountebank in public. He brandishes his sword, threatening to stab her with it. He becomes fixated on the idea that Celia will now begin a secret love affair with the mountebank. Celia protests that she never even leaves her room except to go to church. Corvino vows to cover up the window and forbid her from even going within three yards of it. A knock comes at the door and he tells her that if she interferes with his business, he will cut her into pieces. Act Two, Scenes Six and Seven Corvino believes that Mosca's appearance at his door means that Volpone has died. However, Mosca tells Corvino that Volpone has made a miraculous recovery by taking the Oglio del Scoto. Now, says Mosca, the doctors have recommended that Volpone sleep with a woman in order to keep his health. Corvino recommends a prostitute, but Mosca says he does not trust them. Mosca then claims that Lupo, a doctor, offered Volpone his virgin daughter. Taking this as a sign of competition for Volpone's inheritance, Corvino offers up his wife. Mosca tells Corvino that he is certain to be Volpone's heir and that during Volpone's next seizure, Mosca might pull the pillow from behind his head and let him die. Corvino, convinced that Celia must sleep with Volpone in order to secure his inheritance, tries to patch things up with Celia. He tells Celia that he didn't mean the things he said. He tells her he is not jealous and that he will show it to her if she comes with him to a feast at Volpone's. AnalysisAct Two, Scene One The roles of Sir Politic Would-be and Peregrine are more subtle than the roles of any other characters in Volpone. Although Sir Politic's wife is directly involved in the action, Sir Politic himself is more of a bystander. In fact, it is as a bystander that we are introduced to him at the beginning of Act Two. The subplot involving Sir Politic and Peregrine comes close to violating Aristotle's unity of action, but seems to underscore the theme of Vengeance in the play. In addition, the fact that Sir Politic and Peregrine are from England signifies that Jonson did not intend to exempt his home country from criticism. As Jonas Barish has pointed out, the presence of Sir Politic, Lady Would-be, and Peregrine is most likely intended as a connection between the Italian state and the English state. In Volpone, Barish points out, Venice is a "looking glass for England whereby that country is warned to heed the lesson of the Italian state lest its own follies turn to vices and destroy it" (84). Moreover, the Animalization theme continues in the characters of Sir Politic and Peregrine. Pol, the shortened form of Politic's name, means "parrot" and sums up perfectly the hollow garrulousness shared by him and his wife. Peregrine, whose name means "falcon," is named for his shrewdness. Not surprisingly, Peregrine is the one who sees through the mountebank's scam while Sir Politic is utterly fooled by it. Act Two, Scenes Two and Three Volpone's sales pitch is an example of dramatic irony. Only we the audience know that the mountebank is not Scoto of Mantua but rather Volpone. Thus, when Volpone says that despises money, we know that he is contradicting his speech from 1.1. What's more, when Volpone states that good health is priceless, he foreshadows his own punishment in 5.12 - the deprivation of good health - as ordered by the Avocatori. The handkerchief which Celia gives to Volpone is a classic Elizabethan symbol of affection and intimacy. Considering that in Jonson's era, the exchange of a handkerchief was seen as a flirtatious act, Corvino's furious reaction is historically understandable, though the extent of his jealousy will certainly disgust a modern reader. In Shakespeare's Othello, Othello reacts similarly when he suspects that Desdemona has given her handkerchief away to another man. Act Two, Scene Four In this scene, it becomes clear that Mosca has done well to expose Volpone's weakness. Before he heard of Celia, Volpone was obsessively protective of his gold. Now that he has seen her for himself, he is willing to give Mosca any amount of gold in order to bring Celia to him. In fact, he does just that, for, as a belated consequence of bringing Celia to his house, Volpone is tricked out of his fortune by Mosca. Considering these twists of fate which we the audience are aware of, Mosca's comment about escaping Volpone's epilogue appears even more ominous. Act Two, Scene Five Much has been written on Corvino as the embodiment of jealousy. Clearly, his overreaction to the handkerchief incident provides a good example of how poisonous jealousy is. Exposing Corvino's jealousy as a vice is certainly one of Jonson's intentions in writing this didactic play. But neither should the sadomasochistic desires of Corvino and Celia, which appear first here in 2.5, be overlooked. In this scene, Corvino threatens Celia with gruesome bodily harm for the first time. Whereas Corvino seems to take pleasure in the thought of Celia's sleeping with the mountebank - as suggested by sexual innuendo such as "I think you'd rather mount? would you not mount? / Why, if you'll mount, you may; yes truly, you may, / And so you may be seen, down to th' foot" (2.5.18-20). - Celia is noticeably distressed by the thought. Afterward, in 2.7, she is seen crying. However, Celia later, in 3.6, welcomes her husband's threats with religious stoicism. Act Two, Scenes Six and Seven Here, Mosca's conniving is at its most subtle. Once again, he manipulates a character into action not by ordering him but rather by preying on his weakness - as all good parasites are wont to do. By fabricating a story about a doctor Lupo (meaning "wolf") offering his daughter to Volpone, Mosca convinces Corvino to give Celia to Volpone. And we the audience realize how effective Mosca's manipulation techniques must be if he can convince Corvino to willingly become the thing he is most afraid of becoming - a cuckold. Similarly, Mosca is able to connive Volpone into parting with the thing he seems to value most - his gold. Mosca thus emerges in the play as an interpreter of these corrupt men's inmost desires. Even though they vociferously declare greed and jealousy to be their respective defining vices, Mosca understands that Volpone's overriding vice is lust, not greed, and that Corvino's is greed, not jealousy. Mosca seems to know these warped men better than they know themselves, and plays them accordingly.
Summary and Analysis of Act Three
SummaryAct Three, Scene One In the street, Mosca delivers a soliloquy in which he expresses his joy at the success of his plot. He calls himself a "subtle snake" (3.1.6) and talks of falling in love with himself. He delights in being a parasite because he believes that thus he is not of this world. He elaborates on the true art of parasitism, which is not merely begging for money, but rather manipulating people. This skill, he says, must be natural, for it cannot be learned. Act Three, Scene Two Corbaccio's son Bonario enters and scorns Mosca for his "sloth" and "means of feeding" (3.2.9-11). Mosca begins to cry and Bonario regrets being so severe. Mosca admits that, because he was not born rich, he has done dishonorable things in order to get by. Bonario tells the audience that he believes Mosca to be sincere. Seemingly out of remorse, Mosca confesses that Bonario is soon to be excluded from Corvino's will. Mosca tells Bonario that he will bring him to witness his father disinherit him. Act Three, Scenes Three and Four At Volpone's house, Androgyno, Nano, and Castrone are performing a ditty to entertain Volpone. They disperse when a knock comes at the door. Lady Would-be Politic enters and summons two servant women to help her primp. When she asks Volpone how he is doing, he tells her he had a nightmare in which a "strange fury entered, now, my house, / And, with the dreadful tempest of her breath, / Did cleave my roof asunder" (3.3.41-3). Throughout their conversation, Volpone makes sneering side comments about Lady Would-be's garrulousness while she rambles on about her study of medicine and poetry. Act Three, Scenes Five, Six, and Seven Mosca enters and, at Volpone's begging, shoos Lady Would-be away by telling her that he saw Sir Politic with another woman on a gondola. Mosca later comments that it is those who have the most freedom who are the most jealous. Though Volpone says that he would rather that Lady Would-be leave without giving a gift than stay to give one, Lady Would-be presents him with a cap she made herself. She leaves, re-enters momentarily, and then leaves again. Mosca brings in Bonario and hides him so that he will hear his father disinherit him. At the door, however, are Corvino and Celia, not Corbaccio. In an aside, Mosca exclaims, "Did e'er man haste so for his horns?" (3.7.4). Mosca leaves to tell Bonario that he should wait in the gallery until his father comes in half an hour. Meanwhile, Corvino explains to Celia the real reason he has brought her to Volpone's. Celia begs to be locked in a dark room rather than be made to love Volpone. Corvino proclaims that honor does not exist and asks, "What, is my gold / The worse for touching?" (3.7.40-1). He claims that no one will know she has been unfaithful if she doesn't tell anyone. Celia retorts, "Are heaven and saints then nothing? / Will they be blind, or stupid?" (3.7.53-4). She asks him to go back to his old jealous ways. He tells her that if he thought it a sin, he wouldn't ask her to lie with Volpone. He says he considers it charity. Volpone praises Mosca and asks for Celia. Corvino forces Celia nearer to Volpone's bed. Volpone thanks Corvino for offering his wife, but says that he is too far gone for it to do any good. He implies that Corvino will be his heir. Celia says she would rather drink poison or eat burning coals than lie with Volpone. Corvino threatens to flay her and string her up if she does not obey him. Mosca tells him that she might be less modest if he left. As soon as Mosca and Corvino leave, Volpone jumps off the couch and tells Celia that it was her beauty that cured him and transformed him into a mountebank earlier in the day. He tells her he is able-bodied and sings a song to prove it. The theme of the song is similar to Robert Herrick's poem "To The Virgins, To Make Much Of Time." Still, she says she hopes lightning strikes her face. Volpone asks, "Why droops my Celia?" (3.7.185) He then tries to seduce her by showing her the fortune that will be hers if she consents to be with him. Celia answers that her innocence is all the wealth she needs and that if she loses it, she will have lost everything. Volpone elaborates on the rich life he can offer her. Celia replies, "If you have...any part that yet sounds man about you...Do me the grace to let me 'scape. If not, / Be bountiful and kill me" (3.7.240-5). She again asks to be tortured in gruesome ways. Just as Volpone becomes impatient and grabs her, Bonario jumps out from the gallery demands that Volpone let her go. Bonario and Celia exit out the window. Volpone laments that he is "unmasked, unspirited, undone" (3.7.278). Act Three, Scenes Eight and Nine Mosca, who has been wounded by Bonario, enters and apologizes to Volpone. When a knock comes at the door, Volpone fears it is the police, but Mosca tells him to return to his couch. Corbaccio enters. Mosca explains that he was wounded by Bonario who was looking to kill Corbaccio for disinheriting him. Voltore appears and becomes angry because he has heard that Corbaccio will be Volpone's heir. Mosca explains that naming Corbaccio as heir is part of a plan to make Voltore rich. Mosca tells Voltore that once Bonario kills Corbaccio, the law (i.e. Voltore's realm) will take over. Appeased, Voltore sends for Corvino to be brought to the Scrutineo, or the courthouse. Voltore and Corbaccio exit in pursuit of Bonario and Celia. AnalysisAct Three, Scene One The themes of Parasitism and Animalization dominate Mosca's soliloquy. Indeed, Mosca refers to himself as a "subtle snake" (3.1.6) and talks derogatorily of other parasites who have only "court-dog tricks" (3.1.20) and can only "lick away a moth" (3.1.22). This opening scene of Act Three is one of the only in the play in which Mosca shows his true self. In nearly every other scene of the play, Mosca feigns his emotions for the sake of deception. However, in this scene, there is no one for whom Mosca can pretend. Thus, his happiness here is real. That his genuine happiness stems from the deception of others proves that he is utterly despicable. In 3.1, Mosca makes the case for natural-born parasites being the world's true movers and shakers and other parasites being their zanies, or servants. His use of the word "zanies" (3.1.33) draws a parallel to the mountebank scene in which Volpone refers to Nano as a "zany" (2.2.28). What's more, by helping to set up the stage on which Volpone plays the mountebank, Mosca himself is serving as a zany, which, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is one who attends on a mountebank. This opening scene of Act Three, then, marks a turning point of the play - the beginning of Mosca and Volpone's role reversal. That is, in 2.2, Mosca was the zany and Volpone the lead parasite, but by 3.1, Mosca has shown himself to be the true parasite, making Volpone the zany. Act Three, Scene Two Bonario represents one of the more righteous characters in the play. Though Sir Politic has good intentions, he is too misguided for his own good. Still, here we see that even Bonario is capable of being duped by Mosca. Apparently, Bonario's weakness is his fear of losing his father's approval. In this scene, Mosca also reveals that he is of menial birth. This fact becomes important in 5.12 when the Avocatori are handing out punishments. Act Three, Scenes Three and Four Volpone's love of theater is again apparent at the opening of this scene. Lady Would-be's entrance confirms that Jonson adheres to Aristotle's Unity of Time. In 1.5, Mosca had told Lady Would-be to return in three hours' time. Now, in 3.3, she has. Volpone and Lady Would-be's exchange is both humorous and meaningful. The comedy of the situation centers around its dramatic irony. Once again, the audience knows something that one of the characters doesn't. In this case, Lady Would-be is unaware that Volpone is referring to her when he talks of a "strange fury" (3.3.41). In terms of deeper meaning, this scene is another display of the dangers of obliviousness. Like her husband, Lady Would-be suffers from an inability to closely observe her situation. Using Volpone to mock her, Jonson is attempting to show his countrymen how ridiculous and disadvantageous it is to have Lady Would-be's lackluster powers of perception. Act Three, Scenes Five, Six, and Seven Corvino's entrance marks the first kink in Mosca's plan. So far, Mosca's every move has had its desired effect. However, Corvino has come to the house earlier than Mosca expected. Hence his comment "you are come too soon" (3.7.1). As a result, Mosca is forced to hide Bonario in the gallery so that he won't hear Mosca's dealings with Corvino. In 3.7, Corvino and Celia's interaction is primarily an expression of sadomasochistic desire. As in 2.5, Corvino threatens Celia with gruesome bodily harm if she does not comply with his wishes. However, in contrast to 2.5, Celia is no longer distressed by his threats. In fact, she welcomes them, offering to drink poison and eat burning coals if it might please Corvino. In Elizabethan theater, the language of sadomasochism was often coupled with the language of love. In Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, for example, Bassanio famously tells his lover Portia, "I live upon the rack." In the eyes of Medieval-era Christians, a trial is what legitimized a romance. In the case of Corvino and Celia, the last shred of romance is trumped by greed. Though Celia offers herself up to him, saying "I am your martyr" (3.7.107), Corvino cannot bring himself to sacrifice his reputation or his potential fortune. Just before he leaves her, Corvino declares in frustration, "'Sdeath! if she would but speak to him, / And save my reputation, 'twere somewhat; / But spitefully to effect my utter ruin!" (3.7.122-4) Considering her sadomasochistic desire, Celia's innocence, at least as she professes it, is debatable. However, her righteousness is assured by her argument with Corvino in which she begs him not to ignore heaven and the saints. By taking the side of piety, Celia prefigures herself for redemption, both in the context of Christianity and in the context of the play. In the courthouse scene, Jonson chooses to save Celia from punishment because she has proven her commitment to honor and righteousness here in 3.7. Likewise, Bonario is preserved for his determination to do right, as evidenced by his rescue of Celia in 3.7. The scene 3.7, then, serves as a proving ground for the upstanding characters in the play. Act Three, Scenes Eight and Nine In these scenes, Volpone and Mosca begin to accelerate toward their downfall. Mosca, the former master puppeteer, is increasingly losing control of the play's action. The appearance of Corbaccio and Voltore at the same time marks the second kink in Mosca's plan. At this point, he is only barely managing to appease the "clients." These scenes mark the beginning of the end.
Summary and Analysis of Act Four
SummaryAct Four, Scene One Sir Politic and Peregrine enter as Sir Politic is giving instructions on how to be a gentleman traveler. He says that one must be serious in dress and discreet in conversation. He says that a gentleman must never tell the truth because strangers will thereby take advantage of him. He says to know the proper way to handle utensils and to be interested abstractly in religion, but not to take part in it. He claims that fourteen months ago, when he first arrived in Venice, people took him for a native. Sir Politic then elaborates on some "projects," or get-rich-quick schemes, which he has come up with. First, he talks of "serv[ing] the state / Of Venice with red herrings for three years" (4.1.50-1). Second, he describes how the danger of tinder-boxes could be controlled by regulating their size and their use at home. Third, he claims that, using onions and bellows, the plague could be discovered among a ship's crew before it could be transmitted to the population on land. Finally, he boasts that he could sell the state of Italy to the Turks. He shows Peregrine how in his diary he takes detailed notes of his every action during every day. Act Four, Scenes Two and Three Lady Would-be, entering with Nano and two of Volpone's servant women, finds Sir Politic with Peregrine. Because she believes Mosca's lie, Lady Would-be suspects that Peregrine is a woman in disguise. Sir Politic cannot pacify her, so he leaves. Mosca enters and tells Lady Would-be that she is mistaken, that the woman he saw with Sir Politic is at the courthouse. He intends, of course, to convince Lady Would-be that it was Celia he saw with Sir Politic. Lady Would-be apologizes to Peregrine for the misunderstanding and, accompanied by Mosca, Nano, and the two servant women, exits the scene. In an aside, Peregrine vows revenge on Sir Politic, who, he believes, arranged this exchange with Lady Would-be as a practical joke. Act Four, Scene Four At the courthouse, Mosca makes sure that Corbaccio, Voltore, and Corvino are all familiar with the lie they are going to tell in order to protect themselves and condemn Bonario and Celia, whose story could ruin them. Mosca then assures them separately and secretly that they will inherit Volpone's fortune when it is all said and done. Finally, Mosca tells Voltore, the lawyer, that he has another witness who will testify against Celia. This witness is, of course, Lady Would-be. Act Four, Scenes Five and Six The four Avocatori, or judges, discuss how atrocious are the crimes of Volpone, Mosca, and Corbaccio, which have been brought to their attention by Bonario and Celia. The first Avocatore asks why Volpone is not present and Mosca introduces Voltore as his "advocate," or lawyer. The other three Avocatori insist, however, that Volpone be brought before the court. While Volpone is being summoned, Voltore asks to speak on his behalf. He then accuses Celia and Bonario of having an affair which left Corbaccio no choice but to disown Bonario. When the Avocatori protest that Bonario has always been upstanding, Voltore claims that this makes him more dangerous because no one would suspect him. He goes on to accuse Bonario of attempting to murder his father, and describes how Bonario entered Volpone's house, assaulted Volpone, and wounded Mosca before fleeing the scene with Celia. Bonario speaks up to discredit Voltore, but ends up losing favor with the Avocatori. When the Avocatori ask Voltore for proof, Voltore produces Corbaccio and Corvino who decry the honor of Bonario and Celia, respectively. At this, Celia faints. Mosca steps forward and claims that his wound speaks for itself. As the Avocatori lean toward believing the testimony against Bonario and Celia, Lady Would-be appears and seals the deal, defaming Celia for supposedly seducing Sir Politic. Bonario and Celia state that their consciences and heaven are their only witnesses, but the fourth Avocatore replies, "These are no testimonies" (4.6.17). Again pretending to be feeble, Volpone enters the Scrutineo. Voltore argues that, in his fragile condition, Volpone could never have committed adultery. Voltore concludes his case by arguing that if Bonario and Celia's story is believed, then no one, not even the Avocatori themselves, is safe from slander. The Avocatori order Celia and Bonario to be taken away and commend Voltore for his service. Mosca debriefs Corbaccio, Corvino, Voltore, and Lady Would-be before they all exit. AnalysisAct Four, Scene One The significance of 4.1 in the context of the play is not easily elucidated. As Marchitell has pointed out, Sir Politic with his get-rich-quick schemes acts as a foil for Volpone in this scene. However, Sir Politic qualifies more as one of "those that have your bare town-art" (3.1.14), that is, as described by Mosca, a lesser parasite who makes money by knowing his way around town. In contrast to Volpone's, Sir Politic's get-rich-quick schemes are essentially harmless, mostly because he never actually goes through with any of them. In Act Five, Peregrine uses one of Sir Politic's plots as a pretense to enact revenge. Act Four, Scenes Two, Three, and Four Lady Would-be continues to prove her gullibility and Mosca sets the stage for his courtroom charade. Temporarily, Mosca seems to have regained control of the situation. Having preyed upon Lady Would-be's jealous tendencies, Mosca intends to use her as a character witness against Celia at the Scrutineo. Meanwhile, Peregrine is an accidental victim. Analytically speaking, the meaning of these scenes lies mostly in the action that they set up. Figuratively speaking, these scenes represent the calm before the storm. Act Four, Scenes Five and Six Voltore delivers a fantastic performance as Volpone's advocate, living up to the reputation which, according to Mosca in 1.3, earned him Volpone's respect and inheritance. Though Mosca as well as each of the "clients" plays a role in exonerating Volpone, Voltore is the one who sticks his neck out the most. He exerts the most effort and takes the greatest risk in being Volpone's advocate because thereby he defies the very justice system which he was sworn to uphold. In terms of the play's structure, the sheer weight of his deception eventually leads Voltore to confess, which in turn leads Volpone to reveal himself. Thus 4.5 and 4.6 establish Voltore as a catalyst for Volpone and Mosca's downfall, which is, at this point, largely inevitable. While Voltore makes his case, Bonario and Celia act almost as bystanders. As they watch the justice system fail them, they trust themselves completely to God's justice, submitting themselves to the judgment of heaven and conscience. For Jonson, this is the greatest good - sacrificing oneself to mankind's falsehoods for the sake of divine truth. According to Jonson, Bonario and Celia's stoicism is not only to be admired but also to be emulated.
Summary and Analysis of Act Five
SummaryAct Five, Scenes One and Two In a soliloquy, Volpone expresses his distaste for his feeble alter ego. While playing the part of the decrepit old man in the courthouse, Volpone began to actually feel some of the symptoms he has been faking for so long - a leg cramp, a "dead palsy" (5.1.7). He tells himself that he'll get over it and drinks a glass of wine "to fright / This humour from [his] heart" (5.1.11-12). Mosca enters and revels in his triumph, saying that it is a masterpiece. Ironically, given that he is being taken for a ride himself, Volpone wonders how Corbaccio, Voltore, Corvino, and Lady Would-be have failed to realize they are being played. Volpone confesses that he nearly burst out laughing when he heard the ridiculous lies Voltore told to the Avocatori. He also admits that he was a little nervous during the whole process. Mosca suggests that, for his exemplary efforts as an advocate, Voltore deserves to be deceived. Volpone, initiating this deception, summons Nano and Castrone, Volpone and tells them to spread the word that he has died from the grief caused by the debacle at the Scrutineo. Volpone drafts a new will naming Mosca as his sole heir. He plans to hide and secretly delight in the disappointment of Corbaccio, Corvino, Voltore, and Lady Would-be. Together, they laugh at the pains that these four "clients" have gone through, particularly Lady Would-be, who went so far as to kiss Volpone's greasy face in the courthouse. Mosca delivers a speech celebrating and personifying gold. To this, Volpone replies "I think she loves me," (5.2.106) referring to gold. Mosca, however, thinks he is referring to Lady Would-be. Act Five, Scene Three Voltore enters and observes Mosca walking about the house, taking inventory of Volpone's possessions. Corvino is carried in on a chair and Corvino and Lady Would-be enter the house as well. While each asks after the fortune they think they've won, Mosca says ignores them, continuing to list the various items that Volpone owned. Eventually, Mosca hands them the will and lets them discover the truth for themselves. In a series of asides, Volpone takes pleasure in the body language of his four victims. Mosca pretends not to hear as the four protest. Then, one by one, he berates them for their misguided attempts to win Volpone's inheritance. He reminds Lady Would-be that she offered to sleep with him if he would make her heir. He rebukes Corvino for willingly becoming a cuckold and Cobaccio for disinheriting his son. Finally, he scolds Voltore for betraying the law that he professes to uphold. Each of them leaves after his reprimand and when they are all gone, Volpone emerges from behind the curtains and congratulates Mosca, encouraging him to continue the act in the streets. They plan to put Volpone in disguise so he can watch. Mosca tells Volpone to beware, saying "Sir, you must look for curses" (5.3.118). True to form, Volpone replies, "The Fox fares ever best when he is cursed" (5.3.119). Act Five, Scene Four At Sir Politic's house, Peregrine plans his revenge. After gaining entrance to the house in the guise of a statesman, Peregrine warns Sir Politic that the young Englishman he met earlier - that is, Peregrine - was a spy who informed the Venetian government of his plans to sell the state to the Turks. Peregrine tells him that government officials are on their way to search his house. Sir Politic orders his servants to burn his papers and hides himself in an enormous tortoise shell just as three merchants, disguised as government officials, enter the house. After the merchants discover Sir Politic under the shell, Peregrine tells Politic that he has been made a fool and leaves. Sir Politic, fearing that he will now be the subject of common gossip, plans to leave Venice for good. Act Five, Scene Five Back at Volpone's house, Volpone and Mosca are dressed as a court official and a nobleman, respectively. After Volpone leaves to find out the latest news at the courthouse, Mosca reveals his plan to betray Volpone. Mosca sends Androgyno, Nano, and Castrone out to entertain themselves. He then locks the door and takes the keys, plotting to hold out until Volpone shares his fortune. He rationalizes his scheme by saying, "[N]o man would construe it a sin. / Let his sport pay for 't. This is called the fox-trap" (5.3.17-8). Act Five, Scenes Six, Seven, Eight, and Nine In the street, Volpone, disguised as a court official, torments Corbaccio and Corvino by pretending he has heard news that they inherited a fortune. After they leave, Volpone continues the charade with Voltore as his victim. Voltore exits and Volpone returns to torture Corbaccio and Corvino just as Mosca passes by. Corvino threatens to beat Volpone, who teases him for publicly professing to be a cuckold. They exit as Mosca enters again. Voltore enters and idly threatens Mosca while Volpone continues to poke fun. Act Five, Scene Ten At the Scrutineo, Voltore confesses to the Avocatori that he misled them. Volpone leaves the courthouse. Corvino steps in to prevent Voltore from incriminating himself as well as the other three would-be heirs. Voltore, however, gives to the Avocatori his notes, which describe in detail the lie which Mosca, Corbaccio, Corvino, Voltore, and Lady Would-be conspired to construct. Corvino and Corbaccio deny the truth of the notes, saying that Voltore is possessed by the devil. Act Five, Scene Eleven In the street, Volpone worries that he has ruined himself by goading Voltore to the point of confessing before the court. Nano, Androgyno, and Castrone enter and tell Volpone that Mosca has taken the keys to the house. At this point, Volpone realizes that Mosca intends to betray him. Act Five, Scene Twelve Volpone, still in disguise, re-enters the courthouse and tells Voltore that has been sent by Volpone, who is still alive, to tell him that he is heir. Upon hearing this, Voltore pretends that he has been possessed all along, denying that he ever wrote the notes. As Mosca enters, Volpone tells him to affirm that Volpone is still alive. Mosca, however, implies that Volpone is dead and, speaking aside to Volpone, demands half of his fortune. Volpone at first refuses, then accepts. But Mosca insists on having more. As he is being taken away to be whipped for lying to the court, Volpone takes off his disguise in order to bring Mosca down with him. Immediately, the Avocatori free Bonario and Celia and permanently banish Mosca to the galleys. Volpone is condemned to prison where he is to lie shackled until he becomes as ill as he always pretended to be. Voltore is disbarred and Corbaccio disinherited. Corvino, after sending Celia home to her father and paying back three times her dowry, is to be rowed around Venice wearing a hat with donkey ears. All but Volpone exit the stage. The title character then delivers a message from Jonson, asking that he be criticized if has offended anyone in the audience, but if not, that he be rewarded with applause. AnalysisAct Five, Scenes One and Two In 5.1, Volpone again displays his lack of moral development. As he did in 3.7 and as he will do in 5.11, Volpone expresses remorse for his misdeeds only when he is facing their repercussions. According to the theory of moral development pioneered by Lawrence Kohlberg, Volpone operates at the first level of moral thinking, meaning he is guided only by the threat of punishment. Whereas Bonario and Celia might base their ethical decisions on their consciences, Volpone only concerns himself with whether or not he will be caught. Jonson's notion of poetic justice begins to play out as Volpone's fake symptoms become real. Of course, even if his condition is psychosomatic, it foreshadows the punishment handed down by the Avocatori in 5.12. And the dramatic irony doesn't stop here. That Volpone still laughs at his "clients" for being duped shows his unawareness of his own gullibility. Mosca's suggestion that Voltore deserves to be deceived shows that, in terms of moral thinking, Mosca is even more debased than Volpone. While Volpone's misguided remorse is too little, too late, Mosca's is nonexistent: the "parasite" inhabits a world of utter strategy, without any sense of repercussions whatever. He operates ruthlessly on the basis of his wit alone. And he clearly has more wit than Volpone, as is clear when Mosca gives his speech figuratively personifying gold. Volpone takes him literally, wondering if his Mistress Gold might requite his love. At this point, Volpone's greed has actually consumed his mind - Volpone cannot distinguish between gold and humanity. Act Five, Scene Three In this scene, Mosca - somewhat ironically - becomes the voice of Jonson. Though Mosca has repeatedly proven his mendacity, he does in fact speak the truth as he berates each of the four clients. His cutting analysis of their failings is quite accurate. Clearly, though Mosca is perhaps the vilest character in the play, he is also the most acute, which makes his own crimes all the more enormous. Moreover, considering Jonson's stated reasons for writing the play (see the Epistle and the Prologue), the playwright makes a point when he puts moral judgments in the mouth of an immoral character, because having Mosca convey morals effectually proves their universality. In other words, Mosca proves that evidently true morals are true even in the mouths of the immoral - thus it is the moral itself, not the morality of a given speaker, that rings true. Jonson aims for universality, and if even Mosca can ferret out a moral, then it's indeed likely a universal one. Act Five, Scene Four This scene contributes to the theme of Vengeance and consummates the subplot of the play. Though many scholars have dismissed this scene as a poor attempt at farce, Barish has pointed out its significance to the theme of Animalization. In any case, the most interesting aspect of 5.4 is Sir Politic's access to a giant tortoise shell. As Donaldson points out, the tortoise shell is an emblem of policy - a humorous representation of the kind of diplomacy that shuns risk. Donaldson goes on to argue that the tortoise can also be interpreted as an emblem of silence and an emblem of chastity. Sir Politic, then, who has been so garrulous on the subject of his strategems and acumen, silently hides in his shell when actually called upon to back up such talk. As a symbol of the English state, Politic's cowering, hollow foray into continental politics does not reflect well upon his home country. Act Five, Scenes Five, Six, Seven, Eight, and Nine Mosca finally articulates his plan to swindle Volpone and again displays his malevolence,, coldly weighing his options for deceit. James Redwine identifies this scene as the end of the first part of the catastasis, or climax, of the play. The second part of the catastasis is played out in scenes 6 through 9. Here, as Redwine points out, "It is Volpone himself who tortures the birds of prey" (314). Act Five, Scenes Ten, Eleven, and Twelve Scene 5.10 is the beginning of the denouement. Though Mosca and Volpone have extricated themselves from worse situations, Voltore's confession effectively seals their fate. Whereas before, Mosca and Volpone were working together, Mosca, the "subtle snake," has now turned against Volpone. As he himself realizes in 5.11, Volpone can no longer rely on Mosca to get him out of trouble. Thus, in 5.12, the downfall of both Mosca and Volpone is assured. Volpone's dependence on Mosca is a result of the role reversal we witnessed in 3.1. However, in 5.12, Mosca and Volpone again reverse their roles. Thanks to their excessive greed, Mosca and Volpone refuse to share the fortune. Their inability to cooperate is ultimately their undoing. And as Volpone unmasks himself, he reasserts his dominance over Mosca. It is important to note that, in determining punishments, the Avocatori take Mosca's menial birth into consideration. In every case, however, the Avocatori use a variation of Hammurabi's Code. That is, they follow the principle of an eye for an eye. To conclude the play, Jonson again chooses an immoral character as his voice. His message, a common device of Elizabethan theater, asks simply for the approval of the audience.
ClassicNote on Volpone
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