Act One, Scene One

Richard gives a short speech detailing his plot against his brother Clarence, who comes before him as heir to the throne of England. Richard has just succeeded in having Clarence arrested and it as a prisoner that Clarence walks onto the stage, guarded by Sir Robert Brackenbury.

Richard asks Clarence what the reason for his arrest is. Clarence replies that someone told King Edward that a person with a name starting with the letter "G" would cause his family to lose the throne. Since Clarence's full name is George, Duke of Clarence, he was considered to be the primary suspect. Richard complains that this arrest is the result of the women plotting against Clarence, most notably Queen Elizabeth and possibly also Mrs. Shore.

Brackenbury tells the men he is not allowed to let anyone converse with the prisoner, and takes Clarence into the Tower of London. Richard comments that he will soon remove Clarence permanently and thus clear the path to the throne for himself.

Lord Hastings, also known as Lord Chamberlain, emerges from the Tower, having just been freed. Lord Hastings tells Richard that King Edward IV is sickly and ailing, and cannot hope to live much longer. After he departs, Richard remarks that he will first have Edward kill Clarence. This will put Richard into a position where upon Edward's death he can assume the throne. He also plots to marry Lady Anne Neville, who is the widow of Edward, Prince of Wales and the daughter-in-law of Henry VI, whom Richard just killed.

Act One, Scene Two

Lady Anne enters the stage accompanied by halberdiers who are carrying an open coffin with King Henry VI in it. She asks the men to stop, during which time she laments the death of the king. Lady Anne then curses any future children which Richard might have, and prays that after Richard's death his future wife will know even more grief than Lady Anne currently feels.

Richard enters and is immediately cursed by Lady Anne for his role in the death of her husband. Richard tries to woo her by telling how lovely he thinks she it, but Lady Anne scorns him after each attempt. He finally tells her that he killed her husband so that he alone could love her. In a moment of decision, Richard bends down on his knees and tells her to kill him if she cannot forgive him. She replies, "I will not be thy executioner" (1.2.172)

Richard stands up and proposes marriage to her, succeeding in making Lady Anne wear his ring. He tells her to go wait for him in one of his London residences while he mourns the death of Henry VI. Lady Anne leaves after saying farewell to Richard, who delivers a soliloquy in which he expresses surprise about the fact that she seems to like his looks.

Act One, Scene Three

Queen Elizabeth enters the stage with Lord Rivers and Lord Gray. They discuss the fact that King Edward is ill. Queen Elizabeth is apprehensive about her future if he should die. She remarks that Richard Gloucester becomes her son's Protector if Edward passes away, and that Richard does not like her or her companions.

The Duke of Buckingham and Lord Stanley arrive. They have just been to see the king, and they inform Queen Elizabeth that he is looking well. Buckingham informs her that the king want to meet with her brothers and with Richard in order to get them to make peace.

Richard and Lord Hastings enter the room, with Richard complaining bitterly about the lies which "they" tell the king. When asked who "they" are, Richard implicates the queen's brother, Lord Rivers, and her two sons. He then blames them for the recent imprisonment of Lord Hastings, and for the current jailing of his brother Clarence. Queen Elizabeth is outraged at these suggestions, and threatens to tell the king.

Queen Margaret arrives, she is the widow of Henry VI and the mother of Edward whom Richard killed. She speaks directly to the audience, without the other characters hearing her. She remarks that Queen Elizabeth has her to thank for the throne, and calls Richard a devil for the murders he committed.

Richard defends himself vehemently, pointing out his fierce loyalty to his brother Edward. He then points out the fact that the Queen and her brother fought against his brother in the war between the House of Lancaster and the House of York, to which Richard belongs.

Queen Margaret, fed up with the arguments and accusations, steps forward and addresses them all. She plans to tell them once again about how Richard killed her son Edward, but all of the gathered characters attack her for having killed Rutland. This refers to a previous play in which Margaret crowns the Duke of York with a paper crown and waves a handkerchief dipped in his son Rutland's blood in front of his eyes. She tells them that because her Edward died, so too must the current Edward, Prince of Wales meet his death.

Following several curses made by Margaret, most of which are directed at Richard, the entire company is summoned into King Edward's chambers. Richard remains behind and meets with two murderers whom he sends to kill Clarence. A revealing quote is when Richard says, "And thus I clothe my naked villainy / With odd old ends, stol'n forth of Holy Writ," meaning he hides his crimes with Christian behavior.

Act One, Scene Four

Clarence and Brackenbury enter the stage. Clarence has had a terrible nightmare in which he breaks free of the Tower and attempts to cross to Burgundy accompanied by his brother Richard. While on the ship, Richard stumbles. When Clarence tries to help support him, he is flung into the ocean by Richard, where he slowly drowns.

Clarence falls asleep with Brackenbury sitting next to him for protection. The two murderers sent by Richard arrive and hand Brackenbury their commission. He acknowledges the paper which says to hand his prisoner over to the two men.

The first murderer has a sudden attack of conscience. He is able to overcome this by remembering the large reward which Richard is paying him. The second murderer tells his companion to drive the devil out of his mind, since the devil is only confusing him. Clarence wakes up and asks for a cup of wine.

The murders engage Clarence in conversation, and inform him that he will die. He pleads to their sense of Christianity, at which they list his many sins, most notably the killing of Henry VI's son Edward. Clarence then begs the men to talk to Richard, whom he promises will reward them well. They inform him that Richard is the man who sent them, a fact that Clarence cannot believe. He seems about to overcome them with his persuasive words when the first murderer stabs and kills him. The second murderer refuses to participate, and even declines to receive his part of the reward.

Analysis of Act One

Richard's opening soliloquy frames much of the play, and reveals a great deal about the personality of Richard's character. The opening remarks are very logical in their progression: because Richard is deformed, he cannot be loved; because he cannot be loved, he must be a villain; because he must be a villain, he will strive for the throne. This logical progression is of course anything but logical. Rather, it hides the fact that for Richard, the deformity is merely an excuse to play the machiavel, a role which he enjoys.

The fact that the deformity is an excuse shines through in the second scene. For even though he claims he cannot be a lover, Richard manages to seduce Lady Anne under the worst circumstances imaginable. She is mourning her father's death with the coffin on the stage, and yet Richard manages to convince her to marry him. This improbable scene is executed by making Richard into an incredibly forceful character.

Lady Anne is overcome by Richard in part because of the very status of women in this play. In order to have power, every woman must be allied with a man who also has power. Thus for Lady Anne to maintain her status, she must capitulate to Richard's proposal. What is truly fascinating is that she agrees to marry him knowing full well that he will at some point kill her.

Richard's role is several times compared to that of a chameleon and to the god Proteus. Indeed, Richard is often seen playing two separate roles. With the audience he portrays his true nature, and reveals his ambitions to seize the throne of England. But when interacting with other characters, he comes across as a gentle and simple man. This is perhaps best portrayed in the fourth scene, when Clarence is told that Richard wants him killed. Clarence replies, "O do not slander him, for he is kind (1.4.229). He continues, "It cannot be, for he bewept my fortune / And hugged me in his arms, and swore with sobs / That he would labour my delivery (1.4.232-34).

The first act brings in the imagery of mirrors and shadows, both of which are used extensively throughout the play to describe Richard. In scene two he wants to look at himself in a mirror after Lady Anne takes his ring. This symbolizes the fact that Richard is able to reflect people back onto themselves. Thus Lady Anne sees him as possibly being a good man because she herself is good. Clarence views him as "kind," which is a better description of himself. And like a mirror, Richard is impossible to see through.

The comparison of Richard to a shadow is often used in relation to the sun. The sun is the symbol of the King, and therefore many allusions are to the fact that Richard is slowly overshadowing the throne. In scene two he asks the sun to make his shadow stronger, essentially indicating that the throne of England will give him more power. In scene three Queen Margaret tells him that he "turns the sun to shade," a phrase with multiple meanings. Shakespeare indicates that she is referring to her son Edward, who was killed and therefore is a shade, or spirit. But it can also be interpreted to mean that Richard is overshadowing the throne of England, and thus putting the symbol of the sun into shade.

The law of talionic justice, an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, is advocated by Queen Margaret. She represents a different sort of play, the Revenge Play, which is an older form or writing based on Seneca's works. Note the language change when she appears, her interactions with other characters are much more stichomythic. Later in the play the old Duchess of York emulates her, both in diction and in cursing Richard. Shakespeare purposefully uses this form of language with the two older, ghost-like women, because he is essentially replacing this form of play with new characters, in the form of the horrifying, seductive Richard.

In scene three Margaret curses several of the people in the room, and states that she wants an Edward for an Edward, indicating that since her son died, so too should the current Edward, Prince of Wales. She then names the people in order whom she curses to die. This point of the play is actually setting up the plot of the play, although that will not become clear until later. Thus, even though throughout Richard III it seems as if Richard is directing the action, it is really Margaret's curse which determines the final course of events.

Scene four has an interesting switch in the roles of the murderers. The first murderer initially has a conscience crisis, in which he is leery about committing a murder. The second murderer eventually convinces him to carry out the murder, telling him first to remember their payment, and second to drive the devil out of his mind. The obvious irony of comparing the devil to a healthy conscience lends the scene an element of humor. However, it is the second murderer who refuses to participate in killing Clarence in the end. He comments, "How fain, like Pilate, would I wash my hands / Of this most grievous, guilty murder done" (1.4.260-1). This switch in roles shows that the second murderer was in fact overcome by Clarence's speech, to the point where he refuses his portion of their fee.

Act Two, Scene One

King Edward enters, followed by most of court who previously went to his chambers. He carefully orchestrates a scene of friendship after ordering them to forgive each other. His orders to each man tell them exactly how he wants them to behave, including whose hand to shake, or who should kiss the hand of the queen.

Richard enters this farce and is ordered to forget his hatred of the Queen and her family. He does this, but when the Queen tells him to bring Clarence back to court, he immediately destroys the entire scene. Richard replies, "Who knows not that the gentle Duke is dead?" (2.1.80), at which all the other actors are shocked.

King Edward delivers a brief speech lamenting the fact that his brother Clarence has been killed by his orders. He recalls the many times that Clarence saved his life or helped him attain the throne. King Edward then departs. Richard asks Buckingham if he noticed how guilty the Queen's kindred looked when the news of Clarence's death was announced.

Act Two, Scene Two

The old Duchess of York, the mother of King Edward, Clarence and Richard, enters with Clarence's two children. She is mourning the death of Clarence, but for the children's sake instead pretends to be upset about Edward's bad health. However, after a few moments Queen Elizabeth enters with her hair disheveled, and announces that King Edward has also died.

The Duchess of York remarks that all she has left is Richard, about whom she says, "And I for comfort have but one false glass" (2.2.53). The children tell the Queen that since she did not grieve for their father, they will not grieve for King Edward. The Duchess tells them all that she accepts all of their suffering and will lament for them.

Richard enters and convinces them to travel to Ludlow where the young Prince Edward is staying. They all agree that it is safer for them all to go, before leaving the stage. Buckingham tells Richard to go with them, so that no one will think that he is plotting to seize the throne.

Act Two, Scene Three

Some citizens discuss the fact that King Edward is dead. They are afraid of a fight to seize the thrown, with one of them commenting, "Woe to the land that's governed by a child" (2.3.11). Their fear is that Richard or the sons and brother of the Queen will attempt to overthrow the young monarch.

Act Two, Scene Four

Queen Elizabeth, the Duchess of York, the Lord Cardinal, and the young Duke of York discuss the the stories of Richard's childhood. Shakespeare alludes to a myth that he was born with teeth. Dorset enters the room with bad news.

He tells them that Buckingham and Richard have imprisoned Lord Rivers and Lord Gray. The Queen is frightened for her family, which she clearly sees being wiped out if Richard can get his way. She decides to go into sanctuary, meaning a church, with the young Duke of York so that they will have protection. The sanctuary is initially for forty days.

Analysis

Richard III is a play within a play. It is primarily Richard's play, evidenced by the skillful plots which he executes in each scene. This act starts with King Edward attempting to direct his own little play, getting Buckingham, Hastings, Rivers to pretend to be friends. Richard destroys this quaint scene with a single phrase, "Who knows not that the gentle Duke is dead?" (2.1.80).

The way in which Richard intervenes and destroys the false unity shows both the fact that Richard is in charge of the play, and that he is a divisive force. He again plays a fake role by implicating the Queen's brother and sons in the death of Clarence. Richard skillfully asks who among them standing there is guilty, "And yet go current from suspicion" (2.1.95). The irony of course is that he is speaking about himself.

One of the themes which emerges in Shakespeare is that the state of the throne is reflected in the state of the country. Thus, with a sickly Edward on the throne, the overall health of the country is also sick. This is reflected by the citizens who are worried about having a child king, which implies that the country will now degenerate into turmoil.

The imagery of Richard as a false glass appears again, this time being used by his own mother. Throughout the scenes in this act, Richard does not have to be present to have an impact. He is mentioned as having spoken to both the young children, and even the citizens are afraid of what he is capable of.

Act Three, Scene One

The young Prince Edward, accompanied by Richard and Buckingham and several other men, has arrived in London. He immediately asks where his mother and brother York are, and why they have not come to see him. Hastings tells the prince that his mother sought sanctuary. Buckingham cleverly argues that the young York may not have sanctuary since he is only a child and therefore has not reason to hide, since he has obviously not committed any crimes.

Richard then asks the prince if he is willing to spend the night in the Tower of London, which is the traditional place for kings to stay on the night before their coronation. Edward, however, fears the Tower as a prison and is reluctant. Richard convinces him it is better to stay there since it is so well protected.

The young York arrives and he and Prince Edward depart for the Tower. Richard tells Catesby to see whether Lord Hastings can be won over to his side, rather than supporting Prince Edward. Catesby thinks that Hastings will defend Prince Edward, and Richard indicates that he will kill him if that is the case. Richard also mentions that there will be "divided councels" the next morning, meaning a public council for Edward's coronation, and a private council to plot for Richard.

Act Three, Scene Two

Lord Hastings is rudely awakened at four in the morning by a messenger. He is told that Lord Stanley is there to see him, having had a bad dream in which he was beheaded by a boar (Richard's emblem is the boar). Catesby arrives before Stanley and tells Hastings that Richard wants the crown of England, but Hastings announces that he will die before Richard be allowed to wear the crown.

Catesby then tells Hastings that his enemies, the Queen's sons and her brother, are to be executed that day. Stanley arrives and announces that he is upset about the fact that there are two separate councils. He and Catesby leave for the Tower of London.

A pursuivant (basically, a messenger with the authority to serve an arrest warrant) enters and receives some money from Hastings. Buckingham then enters and Hastings tells him that he will eat lunch at the Tower. Buckingham indicates to the audience that Hastings will also eat supper there, although he does not yet know it.

Act Three, Scene Three

Gray and Rivers are forced onto stage as prisoners, while Ratcliffe watches over them. The two condemned men remark that it is Margaret's curse which has condemned them to die. Rivers remarks, "Then cursed she Hastings; then cursed she Buckingham; Then cursed she Richard." (3.3.16) The men then embrace and agree to meet again in heaven.

Act Three, Scene Four

A council meets in the Tower to discuss when the coronation day for Edward should be held. Richard enters late, bids the men a good day, and calls Buckingham aside. Buckingham tells Richard that Hastings will never support him.

Hastings says that it is a good thing that Richard is in such good spirits, because it means he does not dislike any of the men present. Buckingham and Richard reenter the room. Richard asks what the punishment for traitors should be, to which Hastings replies that they deserve death. Richard then blames the Queen and Mrs. Shore (who is the mistress of Hastings) with having caused his malformed arm. He accuses Hastings of protecting Shore, and orders the council to behead Hastings. Richard then leaves, followed by most of the council.

Act Three, Scene Five

The Lord Mayor of London arrives at the Tower. Catesby delivers Hastings' head, at which point both Buckingham and Richard must try to mollify the Lord Mayor. They tell him that Hastings was plotting against them both, and that he confessed as much in the Tower. They ask the Lord Mayor to inform the people of what happened, since he is better placed to placate the masses then they are.

Richard then sends Buckingham to follow the Lord Mayor. He wants Buckingham to tell the people that the children of Edward are illegitimate, which would require that the eldest illegitimate child should take the throne. Richard then wants Buckingham to convince the people that he is also an illegitimate child of Edward, and thus he should receive the throne.

Act Three, Scene Six

A scrivener enters, with a paper that fully details the treachery of Lord Hastings. The paper is meant to support Richard and Buckingham, but the scrivener points out that it took eleven hours to write, during which time Hastings was still alive. The scrivener asks who is so foolish that they cannot see the discrepancy in times, but he answers his own question by remarking, "Yet who so bold but says he sees it not?" (3.6.12)

Act Three, Scene Seven

Buckingham informs Richard that his speech to the crowd went over very badly. He says that having told the crowd everything, he asked them to shout out their support of Richard. Since not a single person responded, he then had the Recorder tell them again, at which point only a few of his own men threw up their caps and yelled, "God save King Richard!"

In order to overcome this problem, Buckingham and Richard plan to stage a silent play. Richard grabs a prayer book and goes to stands between two churchmen on the balcony. The Lord Mayor arrives with some aldermen and citizens. Buckingham tells them that Richard is currently meditating, and does not wish to speak with anyone.

Buckingham finally speaks to Richard, who remains on the balcony, and offers him the throne in front of all the assembled masses. Richard declines, saying it is better for Edward to be the king. Buckingham pleads with him, and Richard again turns him down. Buckingham then exits. A citizen tells Richard that the land will fall into chaos if he does not accept his position. Richard then calls them back, saying, "Call them again. I am not made of stone" (3.7.214) He accepts the throne and begs the Lord Mayor to tell everyone how reluctant he was to become the king.

Analysis

This act is one of the most powerful, both due to the action and due to the events which follow. What stands out is the ability of Richard to play several roles with amazing dexterity and timing. His lines at the very beginning sum up what he stands for, "Nor more can you distinguish of a man / Than his outward show" (3.1.8-9). The implication is that people will believe what Richard shows them of himself.

There is a great deal of foreshadowing throughout this section, usually in the form of double-meanings.

Richard: [Aside] So wise so young, they say, do never live long

Prince Edward: What say you, uncle?

Richard: I say, "Without characters, fame lives long." [Aside] Thus like the formal Vice, Iniquity, I moralize two meanings in one word. (3.1.79-83)

This foreshadowing, accompanied by the comparison of himself to Vice, is apt given Richard's disposition. He does play Vice, a comic role, when he is speaking with the audience. However, he always also has two meanings, which is what allows him to also be the machiavel.

Prince Edward: I fear no uncles dead.

Richard: Nor none that live, I hope.

Prince Edward: An if they live, I hope I need not fear.

Richard can play both roles even here, where he again is able to say one thing and mean another. The uncle to fear is Richard, but Edward naively assumes that Richard means Lord Rivers.

An interesting feature of this act is that Queen Margaret's curse now comes true. Thus, Rivers and Gray both allude to the fact that although she cursed them first, Hastings, Buckingham and Richard are all destined to follow.

A mistake which is commonly made is for characters to assume they know another person by his outward appearance. Richard uses this fact for his own benefit, saying in the first scene that others cannot know him except for what he outwardly shows them. Hastings makes this fatal mistake with Richard, saying, "For by his face straight shall you know his heart" (3.4.53). Of course, only a few seconds later Richard orders Catesby to cut off his head.

In previous acts the reader could see that this play is mostly directed by Richard. This becomes extremely vital to the play in scene seven. Buckingham, having failed to convince the people, creates a miniature play staring Richard in a silent role. Richard thus emerges onto the balcony between, "Two props of virtue for a Christian prince" (3.7.96). Again, the fact that people only judge by outward appearance is played upon: "And see, a book of prayer in his hand- / True ornaments to know a holy man" (3.7.98-99).

This scene moves forward with Richard twice declining the throne. Having discouraged the assembled masses, and having let Buckingham leave, Richard then plays his trump card. He calls back Buckingham, saying, "I am not made of stone" (3.7.214) This beautiful reluctance to take the throne, yet his inability to really let it pass on to Edward, is Richard at his most devious.

Act Four, Scene One

Queen Elizabeth, the Duchess of York and Lady Anne (now Richard's wife) ask to be let into the Tower to see Prince Edward and young York. Brackenbury forbids them to enter, saying, "The King hath strictly charged the contrary" (4.1.17). He realizes his slip of the tongue and corrects himself by saying, "I mean, the Lord Protector."

Stanley enters and orders Lady Anne to Westminster Abbey, where she is to be crowned queen. Queen Elizabeth, realizing that Richard has succeeded at seizing the throne, orders her son Dorset to go to Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. Stanley agrees with her and sends the young man away. Elizabeth decides to return to sanctuary, while the other women choose to flee to Richmond.

Act Four, Scene Two

King Richard asks Buckingham if he will support him in killing Prince Edward. Buckingham is reluctant, and begs for a while to consider the issue. Richard thinks that Buckingham is too ambitious, and becomes suspicious of him.

Richard then calls a page over, and asks if the man know anyone willing to kill for a sum of money. The page tells him that a man named Tyrell would be happy to serve him. Richard then tells the audience that he is plotting to kill Buckingham.

Next he speaks with Catesby, telling him to start rumors that Lady Anne is ill. Richard also plans to marry Clarence's daughter to a non-nobleman, but will let her brother Edward live since he is "simpleminded."

Tyrell is being dispatched to kill the two young boys still living in the Tower when Buckingham arrives. Buckingham asks Richard for the Dukedom he was promised earlier in the play. Richard instead talks about the fact that Richmond is prophesied to become the king, and that he was told he would not live long after seeing Henry Tudor's face. Buckingham continues asking, but Richard then remarks that he is not in the "giving vein." Buckingham realizes his life is in danger, and prepares to flee.

Act Four, Scene Three

Tyrrell, the murderer sent by Richard to kill the Edward's children, returns having done the deed. He tells Richard that they are dead, and is invited to dinner that night in order to tell how he killed them.

Ratcliffe enters running, and informs Richard that the Bishop of Ely has fled to join Richmond, while Buckingham has started raising an army. Richard is shaken by the fact that all of his top lieutenants are either dead or have fled from him. He orders his armies to be quickly assembled so that he can overcome his traitors.

Act Four, Scene Four

Old Queen Margaret emerges and says that she has patiently watched the destruction of her enemies. She informs the audience of her plan to go to France where she hopes to see the few remaining enemies die tragic deaths. She then tells Queen Elizabeth that her curse is coming true, and that she is being revenged for her losses. Elizabeth begs Margaret to teach her how to curse, so that she too may have revenge.

Richard enters and is immediately abused by the women present. His mother, the Duchess of York, demands that he listen to her, which he unwillingly does. She finishes her remarks with a curse on Richard, namely that he should die in the battles he is about to fight.

Richard then speaks with Queen Elizabeth. He tells her that he wants her daughter Elizabeth to be his queen. She scorns his suggestion, and tells him to write her daughter a letter describing all of her relatives that he has killed. Richard does not like the way she mocks him, and continues pleading with her to help him win her daughter's hand. She finally agrees to go talk with her daughter, and Richard assumes that he is victorious.

Ratcliffe enters and tells Richard that Richmond is already arriving with ships on the western shore. Richard, in the first moment of confusion he has ever shown, hastily issues orders and then is forced to contradict himself. He states, "My mind is changed" (4.4.387)

Stanley enters and informs Richard that Richmond is almost upon them. Richard accuses him of treachery, and orders him assemble an army. Stanley, in order to prove his trustworthiness, allows Richard to keep his son.

Several messengers arrive and give both mixed good and bad news. Richmond manages to finally land at Milford, a relatively unpopulated area which is ideal for and invading army. However, Catesby enters the scene to tell Richard that Buckingham has been captured.

Act Four, Scene Five

Stanley tells a priest to go to Richmond and inform him that Stanley is unable to join his side because Richard is holding Stanley's son in custody. He also mentions that Queen Elizabeth has agreed to let Richmond marry her daughter once he defeats Richard.

Analysis

Margaret's curse in the first act becomes more powerful by this point in the play, for several of the characters she cursed to die have in fact been killed. Both Rivers and Gray die by invoking Margaret's curse, and say that after them will come Hastings, Buckingham and finally Richard. This is once again invoked by Margaret when she demands a "right for right" (4.4.15). Thus the play really does turn into a revenge play in its final moments, as a result of the invocation of talionic justice.

The Duchess of York also learns the ability to curse in this portion of the play. Note how her language changes from smooth passages to stichomythic lines. She essentially becomes a similar character to Margaret, and thus is able to put a curse onto Richard, telling him that, "Bloody that art, bloody will be thy end; / Shame serves thy life, and doth thy death attend" 4.4.195-196)

The most important aspect of Richard's personality to recognize is that now that he has become king, he starts to fail. Indeed, it is the moment he takes the crown that he is unable to command every situation. The reason for this change lies in Richard's personality: he is entirely antagonistic, and cannot be the protagonist.

This is evidenced by his command to kill the young sons of Queen Elizabeth. He already has the throne, and the boys are certainly no threat to him since he has bastardized their birth. Thus, the killing is entirely gratuitous. For the first time, Buckingham refuses to jump up and obey Richard, instead pausing to consider the act and then refusing to participate. Probably the surest sign of Richard's demise is the fact that he then calls a page over, a young boy, so that he can hire a murderer to carry out the deed. The use of a page implies that Richard's court is entirely confused and has no structure at this point.

Another obvious sign of Richard's decline in power is the defection or death of all his top lieutenants. This directly comes from Margaret's curse, where she says that he will kill his friends as traitors (Hastings) and make traitors his friends (Stanley). With the defection of Buckingham it soon becomes obvious that Richard is doomed. His top men are now Catesby and Ratcliffe, both of whom are minor men within the play.

Even more telling is Richard's inability to command the situations he is in. This act marks his second attempt at a seduction, in this case Elizabeth. However, for the first time he fails, and cannot win her over. And instead of promising him her daughter, she is able to put him off. Richard interprets this as a victory, again showing that he has lost control of the situation.

The next scene which marks the complete degeneration of Richard's control over the action is when Ratcliffe and Catesby come to tell him about Richmond's navy. He issues orders to Catesby to "fly to the Duke" and orders Ratcliffe to head to Salisbury. Both men remain standing, at which Richard cries, "dull, unmindful villain, / why stay'st thou here, and goest not to the Duke?" (4.4.376-377). Catesby asks him, "What from your grace I shall deliver to him?" The action ends with Richard remarking, "My mind is changed" (4.4.387). Indeed, his mind is no longer the same, and he is unable to stay three steps ahead of the other characters as he initially did.

Act Five, Scene One

Buckingham, having been captured, is led on stage and gives his last speech. He comments that it is All-Souls' Day, a day when all executions are normally postponed, and also a day when spirits are supposed to walk on the earth, as will happen in the next scenes. Buckingham then recalls Margaret's curse on him, and says, "Thus Margaret's curse falls heavy on my neck / .../ Remember Margaret was a prophetess" (5.1.25,27).

Act Five, Scene Two

Henry of Richmond enters and encourages his men. He gives them images of peace and prosperity as their payoff for defeating Richard. "The wretched, bloody, and usurping boar, / That spoils your summer fields and fruitful vines, / .../ In God's name, cheerly on, courageous friends, / To reap the harvest of perpetual peace" (5.2.7-8, 14-15).

Act Five, Scene Three

Richard enters on the other side of the stage and tells his men to set up camp on Bosworth field. He ascertains that his army is three times the size of Richmond's, and plans to be busy with the battle plans the next morning.

Act Five, Scene Four

Henry of Richmond enters and prophetically says, "the weary sun hath made a golden set," implying the demise of Richard (who now represents the sun, the symbol of the king). Richmond then sends a note to Stanley, who is willing to betray Richard. The men wish each other a "quiet rest tonight."

Act Five, Scene Five

Richard decides that he will not eat, saying, "I will not sup tonight" (5.5.3). He then has his men post several guards and makes Ratcliffe set up a pen and paper for him. Richard also orders Catesby to tell Stanley to bring his force the next morning, or have his son killed. He writes some, and then falls asleep.

On the other side of the stage Richmond enters, accompanied by Stanley. Stanley informs him that he will try to deceive Richard as best he can, and will delay for as long as possible. Richmond then attempts to fall asleep, worried that he will not be fresh for the battle. After a short prayer, he too falls asleep.

A parade of ghosts representing those whom Richard has killed during his lifetime comes out onto the stage. Each ghost stops and tells Richard, "Despair, and die." To Richmond they say, "Live and flourish." The ghosts appear almost in the order in which they were killed, starting with Prince Edward, King Henry, Clarence, Rivers, Gray, Vaughan, the two young Princes, Hastings, Lady Anne, and lastly Buckingham.

Richard awakes and holds an internal dialogue in which he berates his conscience for giving him bad dreams. "What do I fear? Myself? There's none else by" (5.5.136). He continues in this vein, first blaming and then defending himself for a short while. Ratcliffe enters and gets Richard to come join his troops.

Richmond awakes and happily remembers his dream in which the dead souls promised him victory. He then gives a speech to rally his troops, promising to protect their wives, free their children, and create peace throughout the land.

Act Five, Scene Six

The sun refuses to rise when it should, causing Richard to state that, "A black day will it be to somebody." He then gives his oration to his army. It is about disorder, and he encourages them to fight to prevent Richmond from destroying their lands and abusing their wives. His last words are, "Shall these enjoy our lands? Lie with our wives? Ravish our daughters?" (5.6.66).

A messenger then informs Richard that Stanley has defected to Richmond's side. Richard calls out for Stanley's son to be killed, but the enemy is already so close that he cannot carry out that command.

Act Five, Scene Seven

Richard's horse has been overthrown, and he now fights on foot. Richard calls out, "A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!" (5.7.7) He then remarks that there must be six Richmonds on the field, since he has already slain five and none of them were Richmond. (This alludes to the practice of dressing common soldiers as kings, so that he enemy could be fooled into chasing the wrong man.)

Act Five, Scene Eight

Richmond and Richard both come out onto stage and fight, during which Richard is killed. Stanley takes the crown and places it on Richmond's head, making him King Henry VII. King Henry immediately pardons the enemy soldiers, and makes sure that Stanley's son is still alive. He then looks forward to marrying Elizabeth's daughter, which will unite the houses of Lancaster and York and end the War of the Roses. His final words are, "Peace lives again / That she may long live here, God say, 'Amen'."

Analysis

Act five is marked by the further loss of power in Richard. There are many illusions to the falling sun, to dark days and shadows. Thus, on the day of the battle the sun refuses to rise, even though it is an hour later than it should be.

The scene of marching ghosts is important in two ways. First, it is All-Souls' Day, and thus the time when spirits are supposed to walk on the earth. Second, the spirits are actually present only as a dream. Thus, both Richard and Richmond wake up and remember having dreamt the ghosts, never actually seeing them.

There are obvious differences in the way the two armies prepare for battle. In his speech to his army, Richmond draws on the ideas of established peace, protected wives, and plentiful harvests. This stands in marked contrast to Richard, who invokes images of ravished wives, harmed daughters, and destroyed lands to encourage his army. This difference is the essential difference between Richard and other men, namely he enjoys destruction and disorder. Thus, even in his opening words we hear him say, "Now is the winter of our discontent" (1.1.1), meaning that he himself is the discontent and the winter.

There is a purposeful reason as to why Shakespeare only creates a part for Richmond at the end of the play. After all, he could have had Richmond be a central character straight from the beginning. His intention is purely dramatic, since only showing Richard creates a unique character with whom the audience identifies in spite of the atrocities he commits. Richard can only exist as one man, shown by Shakespeare on the battlefield when Richard kills five Richmonds. You could never say that there are five Richards the same way you can say that there are five Richmonds, because Richard is not duplicatable.

The scene of Richard's total destruction as a character and man is when he wakes up from his sleep. He is internally confused, and unable to understand himself. It is as if the mirror which he so often plays for other characters has been turned onto himself. Thus he speaks:

O coward conscience, how dost thou afflict me?

The lights burn blue. It is now dead midnight.

Cold fearful drops stand on my trembling flesh.

What do I fear? Myself? There's none else by.

Richard loves Richard; that is, I am I.

Is there a murderer here? No. Yes, I am.

Then fly! What, from myself Great reason. Why?

Lest I revenge. Myself upon myself?

Alack, I love myself. Wherefore? For any good

That I myself have done unto myself?

O no, alas, I rather hate myself.

I am a villain. Yet I lie: I am not.

Fool, of thyself speak well.- Fool, do not flatter. (5.5.133-146)

There are clearly two separate voices talking within Richard, the internalized voices which he has shown throughout the play to the other characters. Now he is judging himself, and finds that he does not like what he sees. The "false looking glass" that Richard has been called has now been focused onto himself, and he cannot see himself clearly anymore.

What stands out in Richard III is the fact that Richard is still a seductive character, even after all the atrocities he commits. Shakespeare creates in Richard a singular character, a new character which has never been seen on stage before. And the audience finds that, much the way Lady Anne is seduced by Richard, so to is it seduced to find him at times likable, funny, and fascinating.

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