Miller prefaces the action of the play with a historical description of the Puritan society in which the play is set and an analysis of the Salem witch trials. To the rest of the European world, the inhabitants of Massachusetts were considered fanatics who shipped out products of slowly increasing quantity and value. At this time the town of Salem, established only forty years before, is barely more than a small village. The Puritans lived a strict and somber way of life, and had a predilection for interfering in others' affairs to guard against immorality. The Puritans carried with them an air of innate resistance and believed that they held in their hands "the candle that would light the world," a belief that modern Americans still share. Miller claims that the Salem tragedy developed from a paradox: for good purposes, even high purposes, the people of Salem developed a theocracy to keep the community together, but all organization is grounded on the idea of exclusion. The witch hunt was not mere oppression, but also an opportunity for everyone to express publicly his guilt and sins under the cover of accusations against the victims.

The play is set in Salem, Massachusetts in the spring of 1692, and the first act begins in a small upper bedroom of the home of Reverend Samuel Parris, who kneels in prayer at the bed of his daughter, Betty, a ten year old girl who lays inert in bed. Parris is a man in his middle forties who believes himself to be perpetually persecuted. He has no talent with children, for he sees then as nothing more than small adults.

Tituba, Rev. Parris' slave from Barbados, enters the room, frightened and worried that Betty may die, but Parris makes her leave. Abigail Williams, the niece of Rev. Parris, also enters; she is a strikingly beautiful, seventeen year old orphan with a talent for deception. She brings with her Susanna Walcott, who tells Rev. Parris that Dr. Griggs can find no cure for Betty's ailment. Parris claims that he has sent for Reverend Hale of Beverly, who will confirm the possibility of an unnatural cause of Betty's illness, but he orders Susanna to say nothing of unnatural causes to others. Abigail warns Parris that there are rumors of witchcraft and that the parlor is packed with people, but Parris tells her that he cannot explain that he found his daughter and niece dancing like heathen in the forest. Abigail admits to dancing and is willing to accept the punishment, but will not admit to witchcraft. Parris warns Abigail that he has enemies who will use this against him, and claims that he saw a dress lying on the grass and someone naked running through the trees. He thinks that Tituba was screeching gibberish when he found the girls, but Abigail says that it is merely Barbados songs. Parris demands to know that Abigail has a good reputation, for there are rumors that her former employee, Goody Proctor, thinks Abigail is corrupt, but Abigail calls Goody Proctor a gossiping liar.

Mrs. Ann Putnam and Mr. Thomas Putnam, a forty-five year old woman and her husband, enter; she claims that Betty's illness is certainly a stroke of hell. There are rumors that Betty was flying over the Ingersoll's barn, according to Mrs. Putnam. Their daughter is also sick, and they assume witchcraft is the cause. Thomas Putnam is a man with many grievances and a vindictive nature; he is a deeply embittered man who feels himself the intellectual superior of all others in Salem. Mrs. Putnam admits that she sent her daughter, Ruth, to Tituba, for Tituba knows how to speak to the dead; she did this to learn who murdered her seven children during their infancy. Mercy Lewis, an eighteen year old girl who is the Putnam's servant, visits Betty. She discusses Ruth's sickness with Abigail, and suggests beating Betty to snap her out of her illness. Abigail tells Ruth that Rev. Parris knows that Tituba conjured Ruth's sisters and that Parris saw Mercy naked. Mary Warren, another young girl, enters, panicking because the town is talking witchcraft. Betty suddenly sits up and cries that Abigail drank blood to kill Goody Proctor. Abigail threatens the other girls: if they say anything other than that they danced and Tituba conjured Ruth Putnam's sisters, Abigail will do violence upon them.

John Proctor, a farmer with a biting way with hypocrites, enters. He is a man who can expose foolishness, but also a sinner. He orders Mary Warren, his servant, to go home, while Mercy leaves as well. Abigail speaks tenderly to him and speaks about their affair, but Proctor states definitively that he will cut off his hand before he will ever reach for her again. As they hear the people downstairs sing "going to Jesus" downstairs, Abigail tells him that he put knowledge into her heart and showed her the pretense of these Christian men and women. Hearing the chant, Betty sits up and screams. Abigail calls for Rev. Parris, who believes that Betty cannot bear to hear the Lord's name. Giles Corey, an eighty-three year old man enters with Rebecca Nurse. Rebecca is the wife of Francis Nurse, a highly respected man in Salem and large landowner. Thomas Putnam holds a grudge against the Nurses, for they blocked the appointment of his brother-in-law as minister. Rebecca, who has eleven children and twenty-six grandchildren, claims that Betty's illness is nothing serious. She suggests not to look for loose spirits and rather to blame ourselves. Putnam suspects Proctor, because he has not been at Sabbath recently, but Proctor claims that there is no need to go, for Rev. Parris never mentions God anymore. Parris warns that there must be obedience or the church will burn like Hell, but Proctor asks if he can speak one minute without mentioning Hell. Reverend John Hale of Beverly arrives, a man who prides himself on the ability to ascertain witchcraft.

Miller interrupts the play for another historical interlude. Miller gives a history of the Church employing accusations of Satanic alliances against enemies, such as Luther and links this to his contemporary ideologies. In Communist countries, all resistance is deigned capitalist conspiracy, while in America during the time that Miller wrote The Crucible any person who was not a reactionary was considered a Red. There were witches in Salem just as there were Communists in America, but certainly nothing equivalent to the accusations.

Reverend Hale brings with him half a dozen heavy books. He introduces himself to Rebecca Nurse, who has heard of her great charity. Giles Corey tells Hale that Proctor does not believe in witches, but Proctor says he did not speak one way or another. When the men speak of the signs of witchcraft, Hale says that they cannot look to superstition, for the Devil is precise. Parris admits to the dancing and the conjuring, while Mrs. Putnam claims that witchcraft must be the cause of death for her seven children. Giles Corey asks Hale what the reading of strange books signifies. He says that he often awakes to find Martha reading in a corner and cannot say his prayers. Old Giles is the comical hero in Salem, who cares not for public opinion. Hale asks Abigail what happened in the forest. Parris claims he saw a kettle, but Abigail says it contained only soup, although a frog may have jumped in it. Parris asks whether they drank anything in it, and Hale asks Abigail if she has sold her soul to Lucifer. Finally Abigail blames Tituba, claiming that Tituba made her and Betty drink chicken blood. Abigail says that Tituba sends her spirit on her in church and makes her laugh at prayer. Putnam declares that Tituba must be hanged. Hale confronts Tituba. He says that if she loves these children she must let God's light shine on her. Hale asks if the Devil comes to her with anybody else. Tituba admits that the devil has come to her, and that the devil promises to return her to Barbados and shows how he has white people working for her, including Goody Good and Goody Osburn. Betty claims that she saw George Jacobs with the Devil, while Abigail claims she saw several others with the devil.

Analysis

First performed in January of 1953, The Crucible is first and foremost an allegorical tale relating the Salem witchcraft trials to their contemporary equivalent in Miller's time, the McCarthy hearings. The figurative Œwitch hunt' of McCarthyism becomes literal in Miller's play, which is constructed to illustrate how fear and hysteria mixed with an atmosphere of persecution may lead to tragically unjust consequences. Miller presents the play with traditional theatrical devices, relying on the dialogue and situations to illustrate his themes, but finds these somewhat insufficient; in the first act the play therefore contains a number of historical digressions that reveal the motivations of each character and which cannot be accurately conveyed through a strict stage interpretation.

Through these prose passages that interrupt the dialogue and action of the play, Miller establishes the particular quality of Salem society that makes it particularly receptive to the repression and panic of the witch trials. The Puritan life in Salem is rigid and somber, allowing little room for persons to break from the monotony and strict work ethic that dominated the close-knit society. Furthermore, the Puritan religious ethic informed all aspects of society, promoting safeguards against immorality at any cost to personal privacy or justice. The Puritans of Massachusetts were a religious faction who, after years of suffering persecution themselves, developed a willful sense of community to guard against infiltration from outside sources. It is this paradox that Miller finds to be a major theme of The Crucible: in order to keep the community together, members of that community believe that they must in some sense tear it apart. Miller relates the intense paranoia over the integrity of the Puritan community to their belief that they are in some sense a chosen people who will forge a new destiny for the world. This relates strongly to the political climate of the early 1950s in which Miller wrote The Crucible. After the end of the second world war, the United States found itself engaged in a struggle for political supremacy with communist forces, in particular the Soviet Union; just as the Salem authorities believe that witchcraft threatens their community, many Americans during this time saw communism as a threat to the American way of life.

However, the Salem witch trials as described by Miller have a sexual element that runs concurrent with the political aspects of the allegory. The community is one that promotes interference in all personal matters and intensely frowns upon any sinful conduct without allowing for any legitimate expurgation of sin. The witch trials serve as a means to break from this stifling atmosphere and publicly confess one's sins through accusation. This simultaneous fear of and fascination with sexuality is a theme that predominates throughout The Crucible, as demonstrated by the particular relationship between Abigail Williams and John Proctor and the sexual undertones of the dancing that instigates the witchcraft trials, and it also relates to the quality of 1950s culture in which the play was written.

The first act establishes the primary characters of the play who instigate the Salem witch trials. Each has his particular obsessions and motivations that drive him to push for the trials. The first and perhaps most reprehensible of these characters is the Reverend Samuel Parris, a man who symbolizes the particular quality of moral repression and paranoia that characterize the trials. Miller immediately establishes Parris as a man whose main concern is his reputation and status in the community and not the well-being of his daughter, for whom he shows little emotion. It is Tituba who shows more concern for Betty Parris than her father, who rules his household as an autocrat. When he discusses finding Abigail and Betty dancing in the woods, his concern is not the sin that they committed but rather the possibility that his enemies may use this sin against him. Parris will manifest a sharp paranoia concerning possible enemies, even when they may not exist. The particular quality of Parris that renders him dangerous is his strong belief in the presence of evil; even before the witchcraft paranoia, Proctor indicates that Parris showed an obsession with damnation and hell in order to strike fear into his parishioners. With the seeming presence of witchcraft in Salem, Parris now has a concrete, physical manifestation of the evil he so fears.

Abigail Williams is a less complex character whose motivations are simple; she is a clear villain with straightforward malicious motivation. Miller establishes that Abigail is suspected of adultery with John Proctor, a rumor that is confirmed later in the first act, while Abigail physically threatens the other girls if they disobey her. Abigail demonstrates a great ability for self-preservation: she admits what she must at appropriate times, and places the blame for her actions at the most convenient source, Tituba, when she realizes that it is the most savvy course of action. Abigail's lack of any morality renders her able to charge others with witchery no matter the consequences. The third character who serves as a proponent of the witchcraft hysteria is Thomas Putnam. While Putnam's motivation is suspicion and paranoia and Abigail's is mere villainy, Thomas Putnam demonstrates that his motivation is his longstanding grudges against others; the witchcraft trials give Putnam an opportunity to exact revenge against others, and, as will later be shown, to profit economically from others' executions.

The final character who sets the witchcraft trials in motion is Reverend John Hale. Hale is perhaps the most complex character in The Crucible, a man who approaches religious matters with the conviction of a scientist and a scientific emphasis on proper procedure. Hale holds the contradictory belief that they cannot rely on superstition to solve the girls' problems but that they may find a supernatural explanation for the events. Since he lacks the malicious motivations and obsessions that plague the other instigators of the trials, Reverend Hale has the ability to change his position, yet at this point he finds himself caught up in the hysteria he has helped to create.

In contrast to these four characters stand the three main opponents of the witchcraft accusations. The Nurses are the most straightforward of these; Miller portrays Rebecca Nurse and her husband as near saints who rely on practical wisdom and experience. In contrast, Giles Corey has none of the noble character of the Nurses, yet he can oppose Parris and Putnam because of his contentious, combative manner. Giles Corey is a man who cares not for public opinion and may therefore choose whichever position he finds most suitable, even if it places him in danger.

However, Miller places John Proctor as the main protagonist of the story and its moral center. Proctor, as Miller writes, is a man who can easily discern foolishness and has the will to oppose it. He is a rational man with a brusque manner who, like Giles Corey, has no qualms about expressing his opinion. Miller portrays Proctor as a decidedly modern character, who eschews superstition for rationality and expresses skepticism for the trappings of organized religion, particularly the obsession with hellfire and damnation that Parris expresses. The particularly modern quality of John Proctor draws the audience sympathy to him, even if he is a self-professed sinner who had an affair with Abigail Williams. Yet this is the single sin that Proctor manifests and exists more as a plot point than as an organic character trait. The Proctor that Miller portrays throughout The Crucible seems hardly capable of giving in to lust for a manipulative and demonstrably wicked young girl.

Several significant themes emerge early in the play. One of these that Miller develops throughout the act is the capability for gossip and rumors to disseminate throughout the close-knit society of Salem. Miller establishes that Salem is a society in which little information is considered private; there is no line between public and private conduct, for all information is open to suspicion and question. This correlates to the McCarthy hearings, which probed into the lives of the suspected communists for evidence of their anti-American activity, no matter the actual relevance.

A second theme that Miller establishes is the ability of persons to choose whichever position suits their self-interest. Abigail Williams shows the ability to affirm or deny any charge against her based entirely on whether it serves her needs, while Tituba, when charged with witchcraft, denies it only until she realizes that admitting to the crime will save her from further punishment and that accusing others will shift the blame elsewhere. The shift of blame from one character to another will be a recurring plot point, as few characters will accept the consequences of their actions or directly confront the charges leveled against them.

Perhaps the most important theme that Miller develops in this act is the ability for accusations to snowball. The charges against the girls and Tituba become perpetually more significant: at first they are accused of merely dancing, then of dancing naked. The charges proceed until Tituba is deemed a witch and accuses others of conspiring with Satan. Legitimate charges of dancing and sinful activity increase in magnitude until charges of Satanism arise. The irony of this situation is that the fight against sinfulness in Salem will become more sinful and malicious than any of the actual events that occurred.

This second act takes place in the common room of Proctor's house eight days later. Elizabeth Proctor sings to the children, while John enters, carrying his gun. He was planting out at the forest edge. They speak about dinner and the crops, then Proctor asks her if she is sad. Elizabeth thinks that he went to Salem that afternoon, but Proctor claims he thought better of it. Elizabeth tells him that Mary Warren is there today; although Elizabeth tried to forbid her, Mary frightened her strength away. Mary is now an official in the court; Abigail brings Mary and the other girls into the court where they accuse people of bewitching them. Elizabeth tells John to go to Ezekiel Cheever and tell him what Abigail told him last week, that Betty's sickness had nothing to do with witchcraft. Proctor tells her that nobody will believe him, for Proctor was the only one to hear.

Elizabeth is disturbed that the two were alone together, but Proctor says that he will have none of her suspicion. Proctor tells her to learn charity, for he has tiptoed around the house for seven months since Abigail left. He tells his wife that he confessed to his sin openly, but Elizabeth claims she does not judge him. Proctor replies that her justice would freeze beer.

Mary Warren enters, and gives Elizabeth a poppet that she made in court today. Mary tells them that there are thirty-nine people arrested, and Goody Osburn will hang, but not Sarah Good, for she confessed. Mary Warren claims that Goody Osburn sent her spirit out in court to choke them, and often mumbles whenever others turn her away when she begs. Proctor demands proof that Goody Osburn is a witch, and forbids Mary Warren to go to court. Mary says that it is amazing that Proctor does not see the weighty work they do, and insists that she is a court official, but Proctor threatens her with a whip. Mary claims that she saved Elizabeth's life today, for she was accused. Proctor orders Mary to go to bed, but she claims she will not be ordered, then decides to go to bed willingly. Elizabeth realizes that Abigail wants her dead. Proctor reassures her that he will find Ezekiel Cheever and tell him what Abigail said, but Elizabeth thinks that more than Cheever's help is needed now. She tells her to go to Abigail, for a promise is made in bed and Abigail must think that he will fulfill this promise. Elizabeth believes that Abigail must think that she will profit from Elizabeth's death, for accusing a respected member of society is more dangerous than accusing a drunk or indigent woman such as Good or Osburn.

Mr. Hale arrives at the house as Elizabeth and John argue over Abigail. He now has a quality of deference and even guilt. Hale tells them that Elizabeth's name was mentioned in court and Rebecca Nurse was charged. Proctor finds it impossible to believe that so pious a woman could be a "Devil's bitch" after seventy years of prayer, but Hale reminds him that the Devil is a wily one. Hale questions Proctor on his churchgoing habits, and Proctor claims that he prays at home and criticizes Parris for his wasteful spending habits in church. Hale also notes that only two of Proctor's children are baptized, and asks Proctor to state the Ten Commandments. He names nine of them, but Elizabeth reminds him of the tenth, adultery. Proctor says that between the two of them they know all of the Commandments, but Hale says that no crack in the fortress of theology can be accounted small. Proctor tells Hale that the children's sickness does not have to do with witchcraft. Proctor tells Hale how Abigail told him that Parris discovered the girls sporting in the woods. Hale claims that it is nonsense, for so many have confessed, but Proctor says that they would certain confess, if they will be hanged for denying it.

Hale asks if Proctor will testify to this in court, and asks if he believes in witches. Proctor answers that he does not believe that there are witches in Salem, but Elizabeth denies any belief in witches, for the Devil cannot own a woman's soul when she keeps an upright way. When Hale asks Elizabeth if she questions the gospel, she retorts that he should question Abigail Williams about the gospel and not her.

Giles Corey arrives with Francis Nurse, and they tell the Proctors that their wives were taken away. Rebecca has been charged with the supernatural murder of Ann Putnam's babies. Hale, who is deeply troubled, claims that if Rebecca Nurse is tainted, there is nothing to stop the whole world from burning. Walcott charged Martha Corey for the rumor that Giles proposed about his wife reading books.

Cheever arrives to charge Elizabeth; he asks if there are any poppets in the house, but Elizabeth denies it. Cheever sees the poppet that Mary Warren made, and finds a needle in it. Abigail had testified that Elizabeth's familiar spirit pushed a needle into her at dinner that night. Mary Warren tells them how the poppet got into the house, and claims that she stuck the needle in it, but Hale questions whether or not her memory is accurate or supernatural. Elizabeth, upon hearing that Abigail has charged her with murder, calls Abigail a murder who must be ripped out of the world. Proctor rips up the warrant, and asks if the accuser is always holy now. He says that he will not give his wife to vengeance. Hale insists that the court is just, but Proctor calls him a Pontius Pilate. Cheever takes Elizabeth away. Proctor demands that Mary Warren come to court with him and charge murder on Abigail. She warns Proctor that Abigail will charge him with lechery, but Proctor tells her that his wife will not die for him. Mary Warren sobs "I cannot, I cannot" as Proctor makes his demands.

Analysis

While the first act takes place in the ostensibly Œpublic' setting of Reverend Parris' home, the second act moves into what should be considered the private sphere of the Proctors' home. The conversation between John and Elizabeth Proctor is intimate and even at times mundane, but there is a significant subtext of tension that remains between the couple that is undoubtedly caused by Proctor's affair with Abigail Williams. Elizabeth Proctor is intensely suspicious of her husband, worrying when he arrives at home late for dinner and adopting a condescending tone when her husband admits that he was momentarily alone with Abigail Williams. Miller establishes Elizabeth Proctor as a morally upright woman, respectable and dignified, yet with an air of superiority that renders her frigid and distant. Elizabeth has made her home into a repressive atmosphere, as she continues to punish her husband for his wrongdoing. Still, if Elizabeth Proctor adopts a tone of moral superiority it is because she is in a significant sense the superior of her contemporaries, with an unwavering belief in the capability of persons to remain moral.

Miller creates an atmosphere of guilt within the Proctor household that mirrors the similar conditions within the larger Puritan society. John Proctor has expressed contrition for his infidelity and asked for forgiveness, yet there is no sense of catharsis within his marriage nor ability for full reconciliation. The Proctor marriage is stagnant and stifling, as the weight of John's adultery is a perpetual consideration. Miller demonstrates this, in particular, when Proctor states the Ten Commandments; while John, likely motivated by guilt, wishes to forget the commandment against adultery, it is Elizabeth who offers him a sharp reminder. Miller seems to indicate that, like the rest of their Puritan society, the Proctors need an outlet to expiate John's sins and without this means for redemption they are committed to a perpetual obsession with the husband's infidelity.

Two major themes emerge in the second act of The Crucible. The first of these is the line between public and private. The chapter itself moves from the intimate conversation between husband and wife to more public matters, but the division between these two spheres becomes obscure. Even in setting, the public discussions of the Proctors' guilt or innocence occurs within the home. More importantly, Reverend Hale and the other court officials use private information for their public matters, such as information about the frequency with which they attend church and their belief in the validity of witches. The court officials investigate all aspects of the suspects' private lives. Under such intense scrutiny, these officials are able to find any information that may be may interpreted as evidence of guilt. This certainly relates to the intense public scrutiny of Miller's contemporary McCarthy hearings in which information about who was present at communist meetings years before was considered relevant.

The second major theme of the act is the ambiguity of evidence. This begins even before Hale arrives at the Proctors' home, when Elizabeth Proctor construes John's late arrival at home as possible evidence that he may be guilty of additional indiscretions. This continues with Reverend Hale's misinterpretation of John's forgetfulness of one of the Ten Commandments and the evidence against Martha Corey, which deems her a witch for reading books. The most significant symbol of this theme in the second act is Mary Warren's poppet. Although Miller makes it clear to the audience that Proctor did not use the poppet as a charm against Abigail Williams, its presence in the house certain attests to this conclusion.

The poppet demonstrates that Abigail Williams is more villainous than earlier indicated. In the first act she behaved solely out of self-interest. She was ready to do harm to others, but only to save herself. However, in this instance she purposely frames Elizabeth Proctor out of revenge, planting the poppet as a means to engineer Elizabeth's murder. This event even serves to break the icy exterior of Elizabeth Proctor, who deems that Abigail must be "ripped out of the world."

Miller creates a situation of bleak irony in this chapter with the arrest of Rebecca Nurse and Elizabeth Proctor. These characters are the most upright in the play, yet are accused of witchcraft by the two most ignoble, Thomas Putnam and Abigail Williams. The dynamic of the witchcraft hysteria has created a situation in which the accuser of witchcraft is automatically presumed holy, as Proctor notes, while even the most spiritual character may be suspected of a Satanic alliance. In this situation the evil persons of Salem may raise their reputations at the expense of the good.

An additional irony that Miller constructs in the act is in the plot structure. The Proctors and their allies can rely on a single person to save themselves from Abigail Williams' treachery. Yet this person, Mary Warren, is the weakest and most pliable character in The Crucible. She alone has the power to stop the hysteria of the witchcraft trials, but neither the strength nor resolve to effect this act. Mary requires intense coercion from John Proctor to even consider admitting to the falsehood in court. However, despite her weakness Mary Warren is as dangerous as Abigail, for the guileless girl betrays none of Abigail's malicious bearing and thus appears more overtly innocent. She is a pawn who may be used by the Proctors to prove their innocence, but Miller foreshadows that Mary Warren may be used by Abigail to serve her own purposes.

Among the characters in the play, it is Reverend Hale who demonstrates the most prominent character development. While the other characters remain fixed in their particular allegiances and beliefs, Hale demonstrates the debilitating effects of the witchcraft trials by the change in his character. When he reappears in the third act he has none of the enthusiasm of before; although he clings to his belief in the absolute certainty of finding proof of witchery within Salem, Hale appears more tentative about the results. He demonstrates a strong feeling of guilt for his actions, as shown by his reliance on what he grasps as indisputable evidence; like Pontius Pilate, to whom Proctor compares Hale, he wants to play only a passive role in the proceedings without any feeling of personal responsibility. Hale's growing disillusionment foreshadows his later repudiation of the court's actions.

The third act takes place in the vestry room of the Salem meeting house that now serves as the anteroom of the General Court. Judge Hathorne asks Martha Corey if she denies being a witch, which she does. She claims she knows not what a witch is, to which he replies "how do you know, then, that you are not a witch?"

From outside, Giles Corey shouts that Thomas Putnam is reaching out for land, but Danforth, the Deputy Governor, silences him. Giles forces his way into the court with Reverend Hale. Giles presents himself to Danforth and Hathorne, telling them that he owns six hundred acres and timber. Giles says he means no disrespect to the court, but he only meant that his wife was reading books, not that she was a witch.

Francis Nurse also presents himself, and tells Danforth that he has proof that the girls are frauds. Danforth reminds him that he has four hundred persons in jail upon his signature, and seventy-two condemned to hang. Mary Warren enters with Proctor, and Parris warns him that Proctor is mischief. Proctor tells Danforth that Mary Warren never saw any spirits, and he presents a deposition signed by Mary Warren that asserts this. Parris thinks that they have come to overthrow the court. Mary admits that it is pretense. Danforth questions Proctor, wondering whether he has any hidden pretense to undermine the court. Cheever tells Danforth how Proctor ripped up the warrant, but Proctor says that it was only out of temper. Cheever also tells Danforth how Proctor plows on Sunday and does not come to church. Proctor asks Danforth if it strikes him odd that these women have lived so long with such an upright reputation only to be accused.

Danforth tells Proctor that his wife is pregnant; although Proctor did not know this, he tells them that Elizabeth never lies. Danforth agrees to let Elizabeth live another month so that she may show signs of pregnancy, and if she is pregnant she will live another year so that she may deliver.

Proctor submits a deposition to Danforth signed by ninety-one citizens attesting to the good opinion of Rebecca, Martha Corey and Elizabeth. Parris demands that these ninety-one be summoned for questioning, and claims it is an attack on the court. Hale asks if every defense is an attack on the court, but Parris tells him that all innocent and Christian people are happy for the courts in Salem. Danforth reminds them that they live in a sharp time in which good and evil are now clear. Mary Warren begins to sob. Hathorne reads the deposition, and asks which lawyer wrote it, but Giles says that he wrote it. He has been a plaintiff in thirty-three court cases, and thus has great experience with it. Hathorne's father even tried a case of Corey's.

Mr. Putnam arrives, and Danforth tells him that there is an accusation that he prompted his daughter to cry witchery upon George Jacobs. Giles claims that the proof is that if Jacobs hangs for a witch he forfeits his property and only Putnam can buy it. Giles claims that someone told him that he heard Putnam say that his daughter gave him a fair gift of land when she accused Jacobs. Giles refuses to name this person, however. When Danforth threatens Giles with contempt, Giles responds that this is not an official court session. Danforth arrests Giles for contempt, and Giles makes a rush for Putnam, but Proctor holds him back. Proctor comforts Mary. Hale advises Danforth that he cannot say that Proctor is an honest man, but it would be better to send him home to hire a lawyer. Hale has signed seventy-two death warrants, and he claims that he dares not take a life without reasonable doubt. Hale says that he doubts the guilt of Rebecca Nurse.

Danforth explains that witchcraft is by its very nature an invisible crime, thus only the witch and the victim will witness it. The witch will not accuse herself, thus one must rely on the victim. Parris wishes to question them, but Danforth tells him to be silent. Mary Warren claims that she is with God now, and Danforth tells her that she is either lying now or was lying earlier, and in either case committed perjury. Abigail enters with the other girls. Abigail tells Danforth that Goody Proctor always kept poppets. Proctor claims that he believes Abigail means to murder his wife, and orders Mary to tell Danforth how the girls danced in the woods naked. Parris tells Danforth that he never found anybody naked, but admits to finding them dancing. Parris demands that Mary Warren pretend to faint as she had done before, but she cannot, for she has no sense of it; she once thought she saw spirits, but now she does not.

Abigail threatens Danforth, claiming that the powers of Hell may affect him soon. Abigail pretends that she feels a sharp wind threatening her. Proctor calls Abigail a whore and grabs her by the hair. Finally he admits that he had an affair with Abigail in the proper place, where his beasts are bedded. Danforth orders Parris to bring Elizabeth to the court. If Elizabeth admits to firing Abigail for her affair with Proctor, Danforth will charge Abigail. Cheever brings Elizabeth to the court, where she says that she fired Abigail because she displeased her, and because she thought that her husband fancied Abigail. She says that Proctor never committed lechery. Proctor cries out for Elizabeth to tell the truth for he has confessed, but Danforth orders Elizabeth to leave.

Proctor says that his wife meant only to save his reputation. Hale claims that it is a natural lie to tell, and to stop before another person is condemned. Abigail then claims that she sees Mary Warren's spirit manifested as a bird, trying to hurt her. Mary Warren sobs that she is merely standing in court, but Abigail continues with the charade. Mary Warren claims that the girls are lying, but after Danforth threatens her and Abigail refuses to stop her charade, Mary submits and accuses Proctor of being the Devil's man. She says that Proctor made her sign the Devil's book and made her try to overthrow the court. Danforth orders Proctor to admit his allegiance with Satan, but Proctor cries out that God is dead, and that a fire is burning because the court is pulling Heaven down and raising up a whore. Hale denounces the proceedings and quits the court.

Analysis

Among the characters in the play, it is Deputy Governor Danforth who seems to provide the most obvious symbol of Senator Joseph McCarthy. Danforth rules over the proceedings as if he automatically has assigned guilt to the accused suspects, and adopts a harsh and vindictive air. However, Miller does not make Danforth a direct equivalent of the irrational demagogue McCarthy; rather, Danforth is a stern, cold man of unfailing faith in his judicial powers. He does not manifest any particular political ambition, but instead acts to preserve the strength of the court over which he rules. This does make Danforth suspicious of any attack on the plaintiffs and the proceedings, but does allow him some room for flexibility. He uses reason to persuade Proctor to drop his charges against Abigail, telling him that his wife is spared for at least a year and that he need not worry about her execution. It is Danforth's stern rationality that makes him a more disturbing figure; he is not a malicious villain equivalent to Abigail Williams or Thomas Putnam, but rather a man who operates out of intense faith in the integrity of his court. He operates under the assumption that good and evil can be clearly and intensely defined, a flaw of tragic irony. In his desperate hope to sharply delineate good and evil, Danforth becomes the willing accomplice of those who obscure this line.

It is Reverend Parris who appears as the demagogue in this act of the play, denouncing all challenges to the court as challenges to Christianity and God himself. Parris is paranoid and foolish, demanding that all ninety-one people who attest to the good name of the three accused women be brought in for questioning. It is Parris' rabid defense of the trials that finally causes Hale to break from the court and offer a defense of the Proctors, Coreys and Nurses. Parris' demagoguery is placed into even sharper relief when one the true reason for the girls' admission of witchcraft is revealed. Parris knows that the trials are a fraud and that the girls are lying, yet continues to push against witchcraft to suit his ends.

Miller develops the motivations of the proponents of the witchcraft trials in this chapter. Reverend Parris remains motivated by suspicion and paranoia, while Thomas Putnam moves from an original motivation of grudges against others to unabashed greed. Abigail Williams, in contrast, has moved from self-preservation to a more general lust for power. However, upon the arrest of Rebecca Nurse and Elizabeth Proctor, Reverend Hale now eschews the supernatural explanations for more concrete, legal explanations. He redeems himself from his role as a Pontius Pilate by serving as an advocate for justice. This is significant, for it provides concrete evidence that opposition to the trials does not necessarily mean opposition to law and order.

Deputy Governor Danforth espouses the central irony of the witchcraft trials: because there can be no concrete evidence of witchcraft, one must automatically assume that accusations are true, for the only two persons who take part in the crime are the witch and the victim, and the witch will never accuse herself. This essentially negates the idea of evidence, taking opinion and allegation to be concrete fact. It is this flaw that on which Abigail Williams and the other girls capitalize when making their accusations.

Miller establishes that it takes only a simple accusation for a person to be convicted of witchcraft. Thomas Putnam uses this for economic gain, coercing his daughter into accusing George Jacobs so that he may purchase his land once Jacobs has been executed. Yet it is Abigail Williams who brings this particular quality into sharp relief. Abigail is intense and dramatic; she targets the weak-willed Mary Warren, knowing that she will easily break from her alliance with Proctor once challenged. When Abigail pretends to see a yellow bird attacking her, it is an obvious falsehood, yet the court accepts it as truth because they have established that such evidence is irrefutable proof.

The chapter culminates to encompass two central ironies. The first of these is that, to prove his own innocence and prove himself faithful to his wife, John Proctor must publicly declare his infidelity. To save Elizabeth and protect himself from an inevitable accusation of witchcraft, Proctor must tear down his name and condemn himself for the crime of lechery. Despite Proctor's obvious sin, this places Proctor as a martyr, sacrificing any chance for a good reputation in Salem, where public reputation is essential, in order to save his wife and others wrongly accused of witchcraft.

The second irony involves the testimony of Elizabeth Proctor. To save her husband from accusations of witchcraft, she must condemn him for lechery. Miller establishes that she is an honest woman who never lies, yet at the moment in which her honesty is most critical she chooses the noble yet practical lie that she believes will defend her husband. As Hale notes, it is a natural lie for Elizabeth Proctor to tell, yet an incredibly ill-timed one; Elizabeth Proctor chooses dishonesty at the precise moment that her integrity matters the most.

Miller continues the theme of revolving accusations in this act when Mary finally breaks down and accuses Proctor of witchcraft. Fearful of her own life, Mary realizes that the only way to save herself is to accuse Proctor of coercing her into attempting to overthrow the court. In this case the accusation contains some truth: Proctor did force Mary Warren into testifying, yet in this case the purpose is to promote true justice rather than to dispute it.

At the end of this chapter, Proctor condemns himself by claiming that God is dead. When he states this, he speaks metaphorically, lamenting a world in which a stock villain such as Abigail Williams may preside over the ostensibly just and moral society of Salem. Once again Proctor gives into melodramatics when faced with injustice. He may be correct, yet expresses his righteousness through means that make him an easy target for those such as Abigail and Reverend Parris.

The fourth act takes place in a Salem jail cell that fall. Marshal Herrick enters with a lantern, nearly drunk, and wakes up Sarah Good. Tituba is also in the cell. She says that they will be going to Barbados as soon as the Devil arrives. Hopkins, a guard, tells them that the Deputy Governor has arrived. Danforth discusses with Hathorne whether it is wise to allow Parris to be so continuously with the prisoners, for he now has a mad look. Cheever thinks that the cause of his madness is the cows, for there are so many cows wandering the streets now that their masters are in jail. Hale has been begging Rebecca Nurse to admit to witchery.

Parris arrives and tells Danforth that Abigail has vanished with Mercy Lewis. They have taken Parris' strongbox and he is now penniless. Parris claims that there are rumors of a rebellion against the witchcraft proceedings in Andover. Hathorne reminds Parris that there has only been great satisfaction in all of the Salem executions, but Parris reminds him that Rebecca Nurse is no immoral woman such as Bridget Bishop, and John Proctor did not drink his family to ruin as did Isaac Ward. Parris suggests postponing these hangings, and admits that there seems to be dissatisfaction, as shown by the low turnout at Proctor's excommunication.

Parris worries for his safety, for he found a dagger at his doorway. Danforth refuses postponement, for it shows weakness on his part. Danforth summons Elizabeth Proctor. Hale tells Elizabeth that he does not want Proctor to die, for he would think himself a murderer. He tells Elizabeth to cling to no faith when it brings blood, and that God damns a liar less than a person who throws one's life away. Elizabeth claims that this is a devil's argument, but Hale says that before God's laws we are swine and that we cannot read His will. Danforth wonders if there is any wifely tenderness in Elizabeth. Elizabeth asks to speak with her husband. Herrick brings in Proctor, who is now bearded and filthy. Proctor asks about Elizabeth's unborn child and the boys, who are kept by Rebecca's son Samuel. Proctor has been tortured. Elizabeth tells Proctor that Giles is dead, for he would not answer to his indictment and thus stood mute and died Christian under the law. The court pressed him to death, laying stones on his chest until he pleaded aye or nay. His last words were "more weight."

Proctor asks Elizabeth what she would think if he confessed, but Elizabeth says that she cannot judge him. She says that she will have him do what he wishes, but she does want him alive. Proctor says that he cannot mount the gibbet as a saint, for it is a fraud. Elizabeth says that she has her own sins, for it is a cold wife who prompts lechery. Proctor states to Hathorne that he will confess himself, but he asks Elizabeth once again if it is evil. She answers that she cannot judge, but he asks in return who will judge him. When they demand a written confession, Proctor demands to know why he must sign. Danforth says it is for the good instruction of the village.

The guards bring in Rebecca Nurse, who is astonished that John is confessing. Proctor refuses to say that he saw Rebecca Nurse in the Devil's company, or anybody else. Danforth demands that Proctor prove the purity of his soul by accusing others, but Hale advises that it is enough that he confess himself. Parris agrees, but Danforth once again demands that Proctor sign the document. Proctor says that he has confessed to God, and that is enough. He asks Danforth whether a good penitence must be public. Proctor asks how he can teach his children to walk like men when he has sold his friends. Proctor wishes to keep only his name, and Danforth thus refuses to accept his confession. Danforth orders Proctor to be hanged. Hale begs Elizabeth to plead with Proctor to sign a confession, but Elizabeth states that Proctor has his goodness now, and God forbid that she take it from him.

Analysis

The fourth act of The Crucible largely concerns the perversion of justice that has occurred in Salem. Miller demonstrates this immediately in the comic interlude that opens the act. Tituba and Sarah Good are foolish comic foils whose claims of communing with Satan are intended to be absurd. Yet while these women are spared the gallows because they have confessed to witchcraft, persons such as Rebecca Nurse who refuse to admit to a crime they did not commit remain sentenced to execution. This large-scale inversion of justice is reflected in the larger workings of Salem society. As Parris claims, there is the possibility of rebellion because of the witchcraft trials, while the numerous people who remain in jail have caused the village to fall into shambles. This is yet another example of the irony of the witchcraft trials: while they meant to preserve the order of society, the trials throw Salem into a state of anarchy and rebellion.

However, since the previous act there has been a shift in the public opinion concerning the trials. Miller indicates that the citizens of Salem supported the trials when the victims were obviously disreputable members of the community, but now that the executions of the more respectable community members are imminent. This reinforces the idea that the Salem witch trials were in part vindictive; the purpose of the trials was not to remove witches from Salem, but rather to remove certain members of the community for other reasons. For the citizens of Salem, the executions only become unacceptable when they involve those honored members of the community, even if the charges against them have the same proof, or lack thereof, as those against the disreputable Bridget Bishop or Sarah Osburn. The implications of this are wholly cynical: the shift in public opinion is not a turn toward justice but rather an expression of personal preference.

If there is a sense of justice in The Crucible, it is meted out to Reverend Parris and Abigail Williams in this chapter. Reverend Parris reveals himself to be a fool capable of being easily manipulated by Abigail Williams, whose guilt seems obvious thanks to her sudden escape from town and theft of Reverend Parris' savings. However, even with these revelations which cast further doubt on the validity of Abigail's charges of witchery against others, the Salem court continues with the trials and executions. This demonstrates that the trials have taken on a life of their own separate from the accusations of the principles, who set legal machinations in motion that even they cannot stop. This therefore fulfills the theme of snowballing accusations that Miller established early in the play. The accusations began with Abigail Williams, but now, supported by the weight of the judiciary, the prosecution does not stop with her downfall.

Contrasting considerations of self-interest lead Danforth and Parris to beg John Proctor to confess to witchcraft. While Parris fears for his physical safety, Deputy Governor Danforth operates to defend the court from further attack. The change in Danforth's overt motivation is important: previously, Danforth meant to uphold the integrity of the court, but here he suggests corruption to simply preserve the political stature of the government; he even worries if postponing the executions might show weakness on the part of the court. By prompting Proctor to give an obviously false confession, Danforth indicates that he likely believes that the witchcraft allegations are false. This fully demonstrates how the witch hunts have gained a life of their own; considerations of reputation and the political dynamic lead the court to continue with prosecutions and executions even when the original proponents of the trials are proven disreputable and even when the political officials who run these trials show serious doubt concerning the validity of the charges.

The final passages of The Crucible concern ideas of martyrdom and justice. Miller places three of the accused as possible martyrs, each representing different methods and approaches to self-sacrifice. Giles Corey, the first of the noble victims of the trials, remains the comic tragedian even in the event of his death death. He does not passively accept the decision of the court, but struggles against the court's charges. Even when Giles Corey dies at the hands of the court, he chooses his fate, giving as his last words the order "more weight" when he is pressed by stones. In contrast, Rebecca Nurse accepts her fate passively, remaining consigned to her fate and thus placing herself as a long-suffering martyr to the court's injustice. Unlike the truculent Giles Corey, Rebecca Nurse only displays those most Christian qualities of resignation and turning the other cheek, but in behaving as such she does nothing.

The critical test for John Proctor in this act is whether he will accept the martyrdom of Giles Corey and Rebecca Nurse or choose self-interest. Proctor himself proposes the question of whether a sinful man may accept martyrdom by clinging to principles he has not always upheld. The saintly Rebecca Nurse may accept martyrdom because it suits her character, but the sinful Proctor questions whether or not it is hypocrisy to stand for his principles when he is an overt sinner. Miller implies that Proctor can choose self-sacrifice for his principles, for it is not a question simply of his reputation, but that of his family and his community. Proctor may not be an exemplar in all matters, but he could not serve as a father to his children if he were to so readily give up his name to preserve himself.

The second question of this chapter is whether it is a worse sin to lie to save oneself or to make a decision that directly leads to one's death. This is the fulfillment of the theme of self-preservation that has recurred throughout the novel. While Hale suggests that God damns a liar less than a person who throws one's life away, Elizabeth suggests that this is the devil's argument. Miller seems to support Elizabeth's position, for it is by giving self-preserving lies that Tituba and Sarah Good perpetuated the witch hunts.

Elizabeth Proctor serves as the moral conscience in this act of The Crucible. It is she who puts forth the most prominent arguments for Proctor accepting his own death, despite her stated wish that she wants her husband to remain alive. This could be interpreted as another manifestation of Elizabeth's cold nature, for she remains seemingly more concerned about abstract moral principles than her husband's life; Danforth even questions whether Elizabeth does have any sense of tenderness. However, Miller counteracts the possibility that Elizabeth Proctor is an unfailingly cold woman; she refuses to attempt to influence her husband even if her position is clear, and she even admits her failings, accepting some portion of the blame for her husband's infidelity. Elizabeth shows herself to be more fragile during this act of the play, allowing her to serve as the story's moral conscience rather than a proponent of abstract and harsh moral law.

The negotiations between Proctor and Danforth concerning his confession illustrate the theme of public versus private redemption. Proctor insists that his penitence remain private, while Danforth requires a public declaration of guilt and a further condemnation of other witches. It is this critical factor that turns Proctor to accepting his martyrdom when he chooses sacrificing himself to stop the perpetuation of the witchcraft accusations. Proctor thus answers his own concern about martyrdom, ending his life with an action that remains indisputably noble dispute the sins he has previously committed.

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